Introduction of Mongolian history with Chinggis Khan

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; width: 768px;"><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top" width="643"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9ScxhlzGwfz9kosqnK2zq8X439MoT_hhdbtg9OU_3Qewr6_pyVipIT_gcqZP7yg98SFV93OKDjysJIMb7SVEIrhyphenhyphen-T6UcpJyzkRt84EHay2c68Iq15vpKqIAfWYLpvKbgpPv65rpgwww/s1600/Genghis-Khan-Documentary.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9ScxhlzGwfz9kosqnK2zq8X439MoT_hhdbtg9OU_3Qewr6_pyVipIT_gcqZP7yg98SFV93OKDjysJIMb7SVEIrhyphenhyphen-T6UcpJyzkRt84EHay2c68Iq15vpKqIAfWYLpvKbgpPv65rpgwww/s1600/Genghis-Khan-Documentary.jpg" width="500" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva; line-height: 16px; text-align: -webkit-left;">The history of Mongolia is dominated by the mythical stature of Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan for the mongols) who has the head of these hordes of wandering tribes reunified under its banner, conquered At the 13th century the vastest empire which the ground ever knew, cutting through has path of blood and fury of the Pacific Ocean to the heart of Europe.</span></div><a name="more"></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><center><ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-6499851386158628" data-ad-slot="1128222198" style="display: inline-block; height: 250px; width: 300px;"><div style="text-align: center;"></div></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></center><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Temudjin, its true name before being proclaimed Chinggis Khan, is quasi has divinity for Mongolian: it brought to them glory, the conquests and has code of conduct and organization. Its image is more than ever present in Mongolia of today although it was presented like has sanguinary barbarian by the official history during Communism. The savage wandering warriors of the steppes durably and painfully marked all the people which knew them closely gold by far, and to to to to their conquering forwardings are reported since the 5th century before JC in the first Chinese writings.</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><br />This vast crucible hardware ground of high plateaus was the many tribes and civilizations, whose majority are little known. The last genetic studies thus confirmed that the amérindiens and the tribes of Siberia and the North of Mongolia cuts common origins.<br /><br />The Mongolian steppes are also the cradle of terrible Huns and to their head Attila the plague of God who sowed panic grass in Christendom, to the fall of the Romain Worsens.<br /><br />The Mongolian Worsens invincible ace for him will last only two centuries time that the warriors are not assimilated by conquered civilizations. The last three centuries history, less known is that of has Chinese supervision until the independence of 1920, then of has Russian supervision, before the democratization and the opening of the country in 1990.</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" valign="top" width="125"><div align="center"></div></td><td align="left" bgcolor="#99FF99" colspan="2" valign="top" width="643"><h2 style="color: #336600; font-family: Geneva; font-size: 14px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><strong>Mongolian history chronology : Prehistory, Hunnu, Apogee & Fall of Mongolian Empire, Independence...</strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="chronology"></a></h2></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" rowspan="2" valign="top" width="125"><div align="center"><br /></div></td><td colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="prehistory"></a>Prehistory</strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>500 000 BC</strong> Human presence in Mongolia</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>4000 BC to 2000 BC</strong> Bronze age </span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>2000 av. JC</strong> Developpement of </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">herding</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> in Mongolia</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>700 à 500 av. JC</strong> Transition to the beginning of the iron age</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>400 av. JC</strong> Construction of the Great Wall of China, who was used as a frontier between China and Hunnu</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="hunnu"></a>Hunnu and next states</strong><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>209 BC </strong>Modun Shanyui built first state, which named Hunnu<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>200 BC</strong> Xionghu (Hunnu) Mongolian Empire reaches  the Yellow river<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>AD 1-100</strong> Xionghu expelled from China<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>156 AD</strong> Xianbei (Sumbe) defeat Hunnu state and became most powerful in Central Asia<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>300 AD </strong>Toba<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>317</strong> Xianbei conquer northern China<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>386 to 533</strong> Period of Northern Wei Dynasty, established by the Toba in </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">northern China mid-8th century<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Possible early Mongol links with Tibetan Buddhism</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>840</strong> Kyrghiz defeat ruling Uighurs<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>916 to 1125</strong> </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> Beginning of Kitan period , established over eastern<o:p> </o:p></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern China</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1122 </strong>The ruling Kitan defeated by Chineese</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" valign="bottom" width="125"></td><td colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="great mongolian empire"></a>Great Mongolian Empire</strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1162</strong> The child Temujin, later to become Chinggis Khan, is born<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1189</strong> Temujin takes the title of Chinggis Khan(Universal King)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1189 to 1205 </strong>Chinggis Khan unites Mongols</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1206</strong> Chinggis Khan proclaims himself ruler Of the Mongol Empire<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1211</strong> Chinggis Khan launches attacks to China<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1215</strong> Khanbalik (Beijing) falls to the Mongols<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1227</strong> Chinggis Khan dies<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1129</strong> Ogedei Khan, Chinggis’s third and favourite son, proclaimed the second khan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1231</strong> Korea invaded</span><span lang="DE"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1235</strong> Karakorum built by Ogedei Khan</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Marco Polo arrives in Karakorum</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1236 to 1240 </strong>Campaigns against Russia by Bat Khan, little son of Chinggis Khan, with his Golden Horde </span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1237</strong> Start of campaigns to Russia and Europe (battke of the river Kalka)</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> that was halted at Vienna with death of Ogedei</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1240 to 1480</strong> Suzerainty over Russia established by Golden Horde</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Conquest of Song China</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1241</strong> Dead of Ogedei<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1241 to 1242</strong> </span><span style="font-family: Geneva;"><span style="color: navy;">Poland</span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> and </span><span style="font-family: Geneva;"><span style="color: navy;">Hungarn</span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> invaded</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1246</strong> Guyuk, son of Ogedei, becomes Khan, he dies that year<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1251</strong> Mongke (Monkh) from another wing of the family becomes Khan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1251</strong> </span><span style="font-family: Geneva;"><span style="color: navy;">Iran</span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> invaded</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1259</strong> Dead of Mongke, his brother Kublai becomes Khan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1260</strong> Mongols defeated by Egyptian Mamluks</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1261</strong> Khubilai becomes great khan</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1264</strong> Capital moved from Karakorum to  Khanbalik (Beijing)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1274 and 1281</strong></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> Unsuccessful attempts at invasion of Japan</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1275</strong> Marco Polo arrives in China<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1276 </strong>Hangzhou, capital of Song China falls to the Mongols<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1279</strong> Kublai Khan, Chinggis Khan’s grandson, completes the conquest of China<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1294</strong> Kublai Khan dies<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1299 </strong>Mongol invasion of Syria<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1368</strong> Mongols driven out of China ,Yuan Dynasty destroyed</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" valign="bottom" width="125"></td><td colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="fall"></a>Fall Mongolian Empire and subjugation by Manchu<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1400-1454</strong> Civil war in Mongolia<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1578</strong> Altan Khan converts to Buddhism and gives the title Dalai Lama to Sonam Gyatso<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1586</strong> Erdene Zuu, Mongolia’s first monastry, is started<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1641</strong> Zanabazar proclaimed leader of Buddhists in Mongolia<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1911</strong> Independence from China<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1915</strong> Russia, China and Mongolia sign agreement to grant independence to Mongolia<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1919</strong> Chineese invade Mongolia again<o:p>  </o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" valign="bottom" width="125"></td><td colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="democraty"></a>Independence, socialism years and democracy<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1921</strong> Chineese defeated, Mongolia’s independence proclaimed by Sukhbaatar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1924</strong> Bogd Khan (Holy King) dies, the Mongolian People’s Republic declared by the communists<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1939 </strong>Russian and Mongolian troops fight Japan in eastern Mongolia<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1990</strong> Pro-democracy protests held, communists win multi-party election<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1992</strong> New constitution announced, communists win another election<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>1996</strong> Democratic Coalition unexpevtedly thrashes communists in an election<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>2000</strong> Communists unexpectedly thrash the Democrats in the election</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; font-family: Arial;">  </span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" valign="bottom" width="125"></td><td bgcolor="#99FF99" colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><h2 style="color: #336600; font-family: Geneva; font-size: 14px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><strong><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="history"></a>History of Mongolia : The Huns, Xianbi, Turkic Empire, Kidans and the Mongolian Empire...</strong></h2></td></tr><tr><td bgcolor="#00CC00" valign="bottom" width="125"></td><td colspan="2" valign="middle" width="643"><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>The Huns</strong><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Mongolia before Mongolians proper was inhabited by various nations since the ancient times. The earliest known governmental entity in what is nowadays Mongolia is the Xiongnu, or Hun state. Historians still argue whether the Huns were a proto-Mongolian tribe, or a proto-Turkic ethnic group. Nevertheless, the Huns formed a highly elaborate state in Central Asia led by a monarch called “shanyu”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 209 B. C. new shanyu Modun started to subjugate neighbouring nations and created a vast kingdom covering most of Mongolia and some Central Asia. The Hun state rivaled with Chinese Han dynasty that resulted in a major conflict for the supremacy in the region. Although shanyu Modun’s army was largely outnumbered by the Chinese, he managed to defeat the latter and make a peace treaty. The Chinese emperor recognized Modun and the Hun state. The Hun leader also successfully engaged in the westerly battles against the Sogdians an Iranian-speaking people.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">At the time of Modun’s death in 174 B. C., the Huns had an efficient administrative system and a superb military. Huns practiced shamanism and worshipped variuos spirits and demons. The only challenger of the Huns was China. Eventually, the ruling house of Modun began to stagnate and princes plunged into intrigues that weakened the state affairs. In 90 B. C. Chinese emperor U-di launched a massive onslaught on Huns. Shanyu moved Huns and other subjects of the kingdom to meet them. The battle of Yangjan marked the last great victory of the Hun state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">After that battle, Hun princes renewed conspiracies and fights over power in the ever weakening kingdom. Triggered by Chinese emissaries, the non-Hun subjugates began to secede and the centralizing will of the shanyu waned day after day. The relations with the Han dynasty combined wars and peace treaties alike.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 48 A. D., the Hun state broke into northern and southern parts. The southern Huns recognized the suzerainty of the Chinese emperor. The northerners faced a great many problems. First of all, the neighbouring Xianbi (Syanbi) made a military offensive against the Northern Huns. Crippled by Chinese enmity and Xianbi aggression, the Northern Huns migrated westwards in circa 150 A. D. Thus, the northern branch of Huns tore into four groups. Xianbis absorbed some Huns. Others moved to China and Central Asia. The very last remnants of Huns went far west and became known to Europeans. Their infamous leader Attila initiated the turmoil of European nations and created an ephemeral state in Central Europe, which collapsed after his death.</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>Xianbi and Joujan<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">History generally considers Xianbis to be of Mongolian origin. Their first leader Tanshihuai gathered loose clans and invaded Huns and the Chinese. He rose to power at a very young age and accomplished important political objectives for the Xianbi nation. He got rid of Huns and in 158 A. D. secured the southern borders by attacking China. The latter answered with a 30-thousand army and was utterly defeated. Tanshihuai became an acknowledged leader in Central Asia, but died early. The single Xianbi state fell into feuds and never again unified.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The years 250-550 A. D. were quite tumultuous in both Central Asia and China. Xianbis and Huns assailed China and produced many short-living governments. Every one waged wars with each other. Jiao state of Huns and Muyun and Toba states of Xianbis were the most prominent of that time’s chaos of wars and revolts. Xianbi leaders called themselves “khans”. This term applied later to all steppe governments.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In the steppes of Mongolia, some Xianbis brought into being the Joujan kingdom. A huge domain covered entire Mongolia and balanced the power with Toba empire and Tibetans. With a complex governmental system, Joujan effectively brought under its control western tribes of Tele. Joujan introduced a military subordination. Like Huns, Joujan people believed in natural spirits and exercised divination and sorcery. Nevertheless, historical documents suggest that Buddhist missionaries were present in Joujan and had many converts. Especially, monk Dharmapriya converted over 300 Joujan families.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In the 6th century A. D. Joujans ended a mutually exhausting war with Toba. Toba, a Xianbi kingdom in China, soon fell to the natives, who regained control of their land. Joujan suffered mutiny in subjugated tribes, especially Turkics. In 545, Turkic leader Bumin rejected Joujan dominance and drove them to China where they either perished, or assimilated.</span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>The Turkic empire<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The name “Turkic” is intentional here to avoid confusion with modern Turks. Although modern Turks share a common root with Turkics, they both are separate nations chronologically and geographically.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Bumin and his partner Istemi created a truly Eurasian empire from the Yellow Sea to the Urals. In a short period of 555-590 A. D., Turkic army reached the Caspian Sea and made a contact with Byzantine and Iran. The Turkic empire had the Silk Road winding through its land which was an important geopolitical benefit. The Turkics managed to win over China and demand silk as reparations. Also, Turkics successfully conducted diplomatic relations with the Byzantine empire and received ambassadors from Constantinople.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Such a vast monarchy gradually slided into feuds and separated into Eastern and Western kingdoms. The cause of division was strife among princes and insurrection of conquered nations. In the early 7th century, Eastern Turkic khan Kat-Il khan surrendered to the Chinese Tang dynasty. Western Turkics formed a confederation to appease local tribes, but eventually disintegrated. The Tang dynasty established its hegemony of Central Asia by the year 630 A. D.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Turkic empire is marked by an upsurge of written documents preserved mainly in stone monuments. These stone inscriptions written by an ancient Turkic alphabet tell much of their lifestyle and religion. Turkics were heathens and practiced shamanism.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Turkic people under the Tang dynasty fought in Chinese armies against Koreans, Tibetans etc. But in 689 A. D., as the Turkic stone says, they revolted and established the Second Turkic empire. Turkic people of the Second kingdom are called “Blue Turks”, for they revered sky.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Blue Turks returned to the steppes and found themselves surrounded by enemies. The Chinese were in the south. Karluks and Kyrgyz nation were to the west. Blue Turks led by a brilliant general Kul-tegin crushed each of them and became a challenging force in the Central Asia. Under khan Bilge, general Kul-tegin and councellor Tonyukuk, Blue Turks revived the olden traditions. The following generations enjoyed a relative peace. Next khan Yollig-tegin was the author of several stone writings.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 745 A. D., the Second Turkic empire suffered a civil war with Uighurs, a Turkic-speaking, yet separate nation. Uighurs won this conflict and on the ruins of Blue Turks set up their own kingdom. </span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>Uighurs and Kidans</strong></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><ul><li><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Uighurs </span></div></li></ul><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Uighurs were a Turkic-speaking nomadic nation that lived in Central Asia. They are not to be confused with modern Uighurs who are primarily settled people. The Second Kingdom of Blue Turks fell victim to bloody court intrigues. The subjects began to rebel. Uighurs were successful in the mutiny and managed to overthrow the Turkic rule. Uighur khan Peilo asserted his independence and initiated diplomatic relations with Tang China. His heir Moyanchur sat on the throne in 747 A. D., when he suddenly faced riots of Uighur nobility. This event shows the falsehood of the European myth about the absolute authority of Oriental rulers. On the contrary, Central Asian monarchs had a limited set of political powers. Aristocrats had such freedom, which allowed them to have a sort of “checks and balances” system. This political structure was highly efficient in the various steppe monarchies.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Having defeated the rebels, Moyanchur khan led Uighurs to wars that secured the state. In the west, he utterly crushed Turgesh and Kyrgyz nations. Later, the Uighur kingdom waged brilliant campaigns to fend off external enemies and became a Central Asian hegemon. Uighurs were involved in several Chinese rebellions and internal feuds. For example, Uighurs interfered in Chinese war against An Lushan warlord. Moreover, they had relationships with Tibet and these three kingdoms, namely Uighur, China and Tibet, battled with each other, forming alliances and coalitions.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Continuous wars enfeebled the Uighur kingdom. In the 9th century, Uighurs faced separatist tendencies among the conquered peoples. Most notably, Kyrgyz lord Ajo declared his independence in 818 A. D. and threatened Uighurs to overrun them. Thus it happened in 840. The Kyrgyz army took the Uighur capital and treasury and ousted all natives. The Uighur remnants led by Pan Tore fled to Zungaria. Some of them escaped to the Far East in Manchuria.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Uighurs at first worshipped natural spirits and demons. Then in the second half of the 8th century, Uighurs had converted into Manichaean faith, introduced to them from Iran. That was a mystic blend of Christian and Gnostic beliefs. The new religion brought a new alphabet derived from the Sogdian writing form.<o:p></o:p></span></div><ul><li><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Kidans</span></div></li></ul><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Kidans were of Mongolian stock. That was proven by prominent scholars of later period. Although they are not direct ancestors of modern Mongolians, Kidans spoke a language akin to the latter and inhabited Western Manchuria. Kidans had an elective monarchy. Representatives of eight Kidan clans elected a single ruler for three years. In such a way, Kidans lived for most of the 9th century, heeding not the wars of neighbours.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">But in 907, a triumphant ruler Elui Ambagan refused to give up the position after three years and announced his claim on the title of emperor. During the next years, Elui Ambagan conquered neighbouring nations, thus strengthening his place in Central Asia. When he died in 927 A. D., his son Deguan received a stable kingdom that would challenge the previous empires. In 936 A. D., Deguan annexed 16 Chinese districts including Beijing. That prompted the Chinese to acknowledge the emperor’s title of Deguan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 946 A. D., Deguan launched his army to into China and captured the capital city. According to the ceremonial tradition of that time, he proclaimed the establishment of the Liao dynasty. The new empire had to achieve several tasks, such as dealing with Southern China and pacifying North-Eastern indigenous nations. From 966 to 973 A. D., there was a major war between Liao and Tatars, a nomadic tribe. Then Kidans of Liao turned south and averted the Southern Chinese army. Kidans spent the next twenty years keeping these Tatars, Tszubu peoples in their control. The war with Korea was unproductive.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Jurchens were a Manchu-speaking nation that paid tribute to the Liao dynasty. Seeing that the latter crumbles under the enormous weight of war expenditures and royal feuds, Jurchens rebelled and attacked Kidans. The Liao Empire fell in 1125 A. D.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Brave Kidan prince Elui Dashi conducted a series of counter-attacks on Jurchens, but failed to save the kingdom. He gathered what little was left of his people and escaped westwards. There he met Seljuks. In 1141, Seljuk sultan Sanjar moved his army against Kidans fleeing from China. Elui Dashi courageously battled with the sultan and defeated him. Then Elui Dashi settled in Central Asian and formed a small state.  Later, these Kidans were known as Kara-kidans, or Black Kidans.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">It is interesting that Kidans assumed Chinese hieroglyphics for their language, whilst previous nomadic lords had syllabic Iranian, or runic alphabets. The Liao Empire was governed by the Chinese administrative model. The culture of Kidans was very high. The Han-Lin Academy provided courses of Chinese and Kidan philology for princes. </span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>Mongolia: 970-1206<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Mongolians are an ancient nation. Chinese historians confirm the existence of Mongolian tribes even in the 10th century. At that time, Mongolians inhabited eastern Central Asia and most parts of northern Manchuria. Legends said that Grey Wolf and Beautiful Deer were the progenitors of the Mongolian folk, but the first real known Mongolian is Bodonchar, who led his people out of oblivion. The approximate year of this event is 970 A. D.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">His descendants became rulers of Mongolians, but the title was rather nominal. Various clans and tribes had their own lords. Emerging as a separate national entity, Mongolians plunged into the politics of the region. The major power in Central Asia was the Jurchen dynasty of Tszing. Jurchens handled the nomadic nations off their borders, attacking them from time to time.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Mongolian rulers fruitlessly defended their land, due to the large disintegration of the many clans. In 1162 A. D., Temüjin, future Chinghis, was born to Yesugey, a kinsman of the Mongolian khan. When he was about 10 years, the enemy tribe of Tatars poisoned his father. The family of Temüjin was later abandoned by the relatives. Thus, Yesugey’s two widows dwelt all alone with six small children. The eldest child Temüjin rose to prominence pretty fast. When he turned 20, he successfully gathered a band of followers, who eagerly joined him.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1185 A. D., the grand assembly of Mongolian noblemen proclaimed Temüjin as the khan of Mongolia and entitled him with the name Chingis. Although influential lords recognized Chingis, there was a considerable opposition to him that began military operations. Chingis suffered initial defeats and a presumed exile, after which he had only a handful of supporters. In circa 1193 A. D., Chingis regained the leading role in the Central Asia. He routed his foes and rivals. Chingis began to unite the numerous tribes into a single Mongolian nation.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Therefore, in 1206 A. D., the grand assembly of all Mongolian leaders unanimously elected Chingis as the khan of All Mongolia. This time, there wasn’t anybody opposing. The year 1206 is marked as the establishment of Mongolian statehood.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Chingis instituted a codified law instead of nomadic habits and reorganized the army, taxes and administration of the state. He also introduced the Mongolian alphabet derived from the Uighur writing.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>The Mongolian Empire: 1206-1368<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Chingis waged a decisive war with the Jurchen dynasty in Northern China. His son Juchi conquered nearby nations of Siberia thus securing northern borders. In 1215 A. D., the war success shifted to Mongolians. Apart from that, Chingis launched a massive military campaign on the western flank. Defeating the Kara-Kidans, the Mongolian ruler approached Khwarezm in what is now modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. The war with Khwarezm began in 1218 A. D. The Mongolian army sweeped across Transoxania, taking over major Khwarezmian cities. Urgench, Samarkand, Gherat, Merv, Bukhara and many other towns fell under Chingis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1221 A. D., the talented Mongolian generals Jebe and Subedey moved further west, passing around the Caspian Sea. As they marched, Jebe and Subedey approached Georgia and Armenia. These two Caucasian kingdoms were also conquered by Mongolians, who later crossed the Caucasus Mountains and entered the lands of Russian princes. In 1223 A. D., Jebe and Subedey met with Russians on the river Kalka and overwhelmed them. Then the two generals turned back and went home going through Volga Bulgaria and Urals.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Chingis died in 1227 A. D. He left a large empire stretching from Caucasus to the Korean peninsula, from China to Siberia. His son Ögedey sat on the throne in 1229 A. D. He continued the war with Jurchens who castle after castle suffered losses. In 1235 A. D. Mongolia took the last Jurchen forts.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Mongolian empire had a strict hierarchical structure. The main power was in the hands of the great khan. The consultative organ was the grand assembly, Huralday, of generals and aristocracy. Chingis’ stepbrother Shihihutug was responsible for the judiciary duties. Tsagaaday, second son of Chingis, ensured the effectiveness of the great law, the Yasa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1235 A. D., the Huralday approved the western campaign to be led by Batu, the grandson of Chingis assisted by general Subedey. That army marched dashed thousands of kilometers and took Russia. In a short period of 1237-1240, the Mongolian military captured important Russian cities, including Kiev, Vladimir, and Ryazan etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Then Batu entered Europe attacking Hungarians and Poles. In 1241, the Mongolians defeated Europeans at Liegnitz. In 1242 A. D., when Batu stood upon the shores of the Adriatic leaving Hungary, Moravia and Bohemia in ruins, a messenger came with the news that Ögedey khan died and that princes of the Chingis dynasty should turn back to Mongolia. Batu departed from Europe and settled in the Volga region, establishing the Golden Horde.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The results of the western operation brought the Mongolian empire onto the international arena. European emissaries went to the Mongolian capital Karakorum to develop diplomatic relations with the khan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The next Mongolian khan Guyeg reigned only two years. The throne was given to Mönh, a shrewd politician who kept liaisons with the Roman Catholic pope and European kings. Mönh started the Middle Eastern campaign. The army moved from Mongolia to Iran and Syria. In 1258 A. D., Mongolians captured Baghdad and set up another dominion.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The next khan Hubilay who inherited the empire in 1260 conquered Southern China and annexed Korea. His reign was the longest. Vietnam and Burma recognized the lordship of Mongolia. Nevertheless, Hubilay’s intention to conquer Japan was unsuccessful. Two fleets ended with a complete loss. In 1279 A. D., Hubilay moved the capital from Karakorum to Beijing and formed the Yuan dynasty.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In circa 1298 A. D., the Mongolian Empire covered most of the Eurasian continent. The empire was a union of four dominions: the great khan’s realm (Mongolia, China), the Golden Horde (Russia and Urals), the Chagatay realm (Central Asia) and the Ilkhan kingdom (Iran and Middle East).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The khans after Hubilay weren’t good rulers incapable to administer such a vast state. The ruling Mongolians were largely outnumbered in the conquered areas. One after another revolts broke off and provinces began to secede. In 1312 A. D., the Golden Horde severed ties with the metropoly. The natives of the Chagatay state took control in 1340’s. Mongolians in Iran gradually vanished in the native population.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The central imperial government also showed signs of decay. Thus, khan Togoon-Tömör and other Mongolians fled from China in 1368 A. D., when Chinese mutiny began to expand. This was the end of the Mongolian empire.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>Mongolia: 1368-1691<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The downfall of the Mongolian empire led to a serious crisis in the Mongolian society. This epoch is called “The Age of Lesser Monarchs” in the historiography. Indeed, rulers of Mongolia after 1368 reigned short time and constantly struggled with the nobility. The khan lost a great amount of his political power. Local lords began to show significant autonomy of their affairs. The once single Mongolian nation started to disintegrate. Oirads seceded and formed their own monarchical line. Then Mongolia broke into western and eastern parts. The eastern part itself fractured into Outer and Inner lands. The Oirads were quite active and occasionally raided into Central Asia.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The single Mongolian language separated into distinct dialects, which later evolved into languages. However, the 15-17th centuries were marked by outstanding scholars and poets. For example, prince Tsogt was not only a warrior, but also a poet and philosopher. Buddhism came into Mongolia in the 16th century. In 1572 A. D., khan Altan officially embraced the Buddhist teaching rejecting the old shamanic beliefs. Buddhism presented Mongolians the vast literature on philosophy, theology and natural sciences.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The khan’s supremacy was limited in the post-imperial Mongolia. 22 khans ruled Mongolia in 1370-1634. Oirad prince usurped the throne in 1450 A. D. breaking the tradition of Chingis descendants. Five years later, the dynasty was restored. In 1470 A. D., khan Batmönh united all Mongolia for 40 years. But his death resumed further partition of Mongolia.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The 15-17th centuries were prominent for many legal documents created by Mongolian lords. During the empire, the great law Yasa single-handedly governed the Mongolian society. So when each prince got fairly independent, they released various laws and other legally binding documents. For example, the legal code of khan Altan was effective in the Tumed region. “The Mongol-Oirad Law” and “The Religious Code” are among the most important.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1575 A. D., Manchu people came forward and assailed the Chinese Ming dynasty. Furthermore, Manchus advanced into China and their leader Nurhach declared his Ching kingdom in 1616 A. D. The Manchu army invaded Mongolia and pressed on deep into realms of Mongolian lords.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1636 A. D. the council of Inner Mongolian princes admitted their defeat and recognized the authority of the Manchu emperor. The last of the Chingis line, khan Ligden resisted Manchus till his death 1634 A. D. Thus ended the great dynasty. The situation worsened because some Mongolian sided with the Manchu military to settle scores with their rivals. In 1691 A. D., the princes of Outer Mongolia decided to accept the lordship of the Manchu empire, leaving Zungaria the only independent Mongolian state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>Mongolia: 1691-1911<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Manchus conquered Inner and Outer Mongolia incorporating them in their empire. The Manchu emperor became the sovereign of Mongolia. However, most Mongolian nobles retained their titles. The Ching government reorganized the Inner Mongolian administration to its own accord.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The 24 provinces of Inner Mongolia were divided into 6 regions. The Ching Empire appointed a governor to be in charge of Outer Mongolia. He resided in the city of Uliastai. Another governor presided in the city of Ih Huree and managed affairs in Central Mongolia. When Western Mongolia finally succumbed to the Manchus, the latter established the Howd governorship in 1762 A. D. administratively; Outer Mongolia included three provinces in 1691 A. D. These are Tusheet khan province, Zasagt khan province and Setsen khan province. Later in 1725 A. D., the Manchu government formed the fourth province, the Sain khan province, as a reward to lord Sain for his part in the war against the Oirads.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">When Mongolians embraced Buddhism, they elected in 1639 A. D. the head of the Buddhist church. His title was Bogd. Bogd was responsible for religious affairs and when Manchus arrived, they kept him as the formal Buddhist leader. A special ministry controlled the doings of Bogd and looked after Buddhist activities. All in all, the Ching Empire created a highly elaborate administrative, tax and political arrangement for Inner and Outer Mongolia.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Mongolians resisted the Manchu rule with the means of rebellions and mutinies. In 1755 A. D., several Mongolian counts led an uprising that engulfed Western Mongolia. Among the rebels were Galdan boshigt, Amarsanaa and Chingunjav. The uprising was at first quite successful, but later Manchus crushed it and severely punished the mutineers. Amarsanaa fled Mongolia and found refuge in Russia where he died. Others were executed.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The laws in Mongolia of the Manchu period encompassed every aspect the Mongolian society. “Halh Juram” which was passed in 1709-1795 A. D., was the most advanced legal document of that time. There were also “Legal Writings of Outer Mongolia” passed in 1817 A. D. It consisted of 63 volumes of various legal clauses.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In the time of the Manchu rule, Mongolian literature experienced its revival. Poets and writers produced brilliant religious and secular works. Famous monk Danzanrawjaa lived in the 19th century and was a crafty playwright. Among his works is “Saran höhöö”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The Manchu government oppressed any thoughts of autonomy in Mongolia. As a result, Mongolia spent the 19th century as a backward region of the Ching Empire.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;"><strong>Mongolia: 1911-present<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In the beginning of the 20th century, the Manchu state rapidly declined and the revolutionary thought of that time penetrated into Mongolia as well. In 1911 A. D., the Republic of China replaced the Manchurian state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Leading intellectuals and statesmen of Outer Mongolia also brought changes and proclaimed the independence of the country. The newly found state of Outer Mongolia was a theocracy. It meant that the Bogd who was the religious leader embraced the secular political power, too. In 1913 A. D., the delegation of Outer Mongolian officials led by T. Namnansüren visited the Russian empire and seeked help in securing the independence. They failed to gain international recognition for Outer Mongolia.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1915 A. D., the talks of Outer Mongolia, the Russian empire and the Republic of China began in the city of Kyakhta. Official Moscow and Beijing refused to recognize the Outer Mongolian independence and forcefully granted Mongolia only an autonomous status.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1919 A. D., the Chinese republican government abolished the autonomy and dispatched troops to Outer Mongolia. The purpose of this venture was to secure Chinese interests in Mongolia in case if Russian turmoil of 1917 would spread there. Mongolian pro-independence leaders organized resistance in various parts of the country.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1921 A. D., as a result of revolutionary changes, Mongolia restored its independence and formed a theocratic state. This time, the powers of the Bogd the 8th were largely limited by the government. Then in 1924, when the Bogd died, leaders of the revolution turned Mongolia into a republic and adopted the first Constitution. The heads of the state aided by Soviet counselors chose the Communist direction for Mongolia.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The republican form in Mongolia brought reforms to the society. First, the society was to be classless, so the nobility gave up all the privileges and titles. Western medicine, technologies and education entered Mongolia and mostly eliminated old feudal customs.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">The 1930’s were cruel years in the Mongolian history. Like in all Communist states of that time, political purges severely injured the society. The regime was responsible for deaths of thousands of innocent people accused by false charges.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1939 A. D., Mongolia engaged in a major conflict with Japan along the Mongolian borders in the East. It is known as the Khakhingol incident. The small skirmishes between Japanese and Mongolians patrols since 1936 developed into a massive border confrontation. Soviet military came to Mongolia for aid. Soviet-Mongolian joint army defeated the Japanese forces and made safe Mongolia’s eastern borders.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">In 1945 A. D., the Chinese government recognized the independence of Mongolia. Mongolia became a rightful member of the international community and was admitted to the United Nations in 1961 A. D.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><br /></div><div align="left" class="text" style="line-height: 16px; margin-left: 10px;"><span style="color: navy; font-family: Geneva;">Mongolia was a primarily Communist country closely aligned with the Soviet Union until the late 1980’s. The world was changing and so was Mongolia. In December 1989 A. D., the democratic opposition demanded political reforms and staged crowdy demonstrations. As a result, Mongolia in 1992 A. D.  adopted a new Constitution which granted open democracy and economic changes.</span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

Introduction of Mongolian history with Chinggis Khan

The history of Mongolia is dominated by the mythical stature of Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan for the mongols) who has the head of these horde...

Read more »

The Boy Genius of Ulan Bator

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZWB7aUb33CjXGsjFHdtmLDiFPEmc90NiPlMGikvGN9Fke6LXiAqbgOZKF0pdiDbYwBDotRcsivQGfgkqxFHOE03fMy5SrgcCKKwKQFJcBBTkG5X7tbtFOyEr7LHGBBCwp3FSEFcLiDHA/s1600/15mongolian1-articleLarge-v2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZWB7aUb33CjXGsjFHdtmLDiFPEmc90NiPlMGikvGN9Fke6LXiAqbgOZKF0pdiDbYwBDotRcsivQGfgkqxFHOE03fMy5SrgcCKKwKQFJcBBTkG5X7tbtFOyEr7LHGBBCwp3FSEFcLiDHA/s1600/15mongolian1-articleLarge-v2.jpg" width="500" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 13.9996995925903px;">Battushig Myanganbayar and his sister outside their home in Mongolia.</span><br /><a name="more"></a><br /><center><script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><!-- tod-movie_footer_AdSense2_468x60_as --><ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-6499851386158628" data-ad-slot="7228867396" style="display: inline-block; height: 60px; width: 468px;"></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></center><span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 13.9996995925903px;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22.0049991607666px; text-align: left;">Days before I was to meet Battushig Myanganbayar at his home in Mongolia, he sent me an e-mail with a modest request: Would I bring him a pair of tiny XBee wireless antennas? Electronic parts are scarce in Mongolia (he used components from old elevators for some of his projects), and packages ordered online take weeks to show up.</span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22.0049991607666px; text-align: left;"><br /></span></div>When I arrived, antennas in hand, at his apartment in the middle-class neighborhood of Khan Uul, in Ulan Bator, Battushig, 16, led me down a steep incline into the building’s underground garage to show me what they were for. Many children in the city play in their apartment buildings’ driveways, but this one seemed oriented in a particularly dangerous way. Battushig worried about his 10-year-old sister and her friends being hit by an exiting car. Standing in the concrete space, its aqua walls nicked, he pointed overhead to a white box containing a sensor from which he had run wires to a siren with a flashing red light outside in the building’s driveway. His Garage Siren gave his sister and the other children time to get out of the way when a car was coming. Battushig, playing the role of the car, moved into the sensor’s path to show me how it worked, but it was clear he was not entirely satisfied with his design. “The use of the long wires is very inconvenient for my users,” he said, almost apologetically, clasping his hands together in emphasis. He realized that contractors would be reluctant to install the siren in other buildings if they had to deal with cumbersome wiring, so he was developing a wireless version. Thus, the antennas. Battushig has the round cheeks of a young boy, but he is not your typical teenager. He hasn’t read Harry Potter (“What will I learn from that?”) and doesn’t like listening to music (when a friend saw him wearing headphones, he couldn’t believe it; it turned out Battushig was preparing for the SAT). His projects are what make him happy. “In electrical engineering, there is no limit,” he said. “It is like playing with toys.” He unveiled Garage Siren in August 2012, posting instructions and a demonstration video on YouTube. The project impressed officials at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology — where Battushig planned to apply for college — but at that point they were already aware of his abilities. Two months earlier, Battushig, then 15, became one of 340 students out of 150,000 to earn a perfect score in Circuits and Electronics, a sophomore-level class at M.I.T. and the first Massive Open Online Course, or MOOC — a college course filmed and broadcast free or nearly free to anyone with an Internet connection — offered by the university. How does a student from a country in which a third of the population is nomadic, living in round white felt tents called gers on the vast steppe, ace an M.I.T. course even though nothing like this is typically taught in Mongolian schools? The answer has to do with Battushig’s extraordinary abilities, of course, but also with the ambitions of his high-school principal. Enkhmunkh Zurgaanjin, the principal of the Sant School, was the first Mongolian to graduate from M.I.T., in 2009, and he has tried since then to bring science and technology labs to his students. <br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfPeEXwhzzMn_v7ScV4KLKpk6r7L7-JD75uIxHRXUy_Yzq0G5KoFmWeiJMpJY4SIyRsB2xuvaiiQMC50Tz7RLf5boM-oz6AT-cUj8EkI-YrA5xVAy-GumvlTGrJLQoNpmWSMCG9UB2L64/s1600/15mongolian2-popup.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfPeEXwhzzMn_v7ScV4KLKpk6r7L7-JD75uIxHRXUy_Yzq0G5KoFmWeiJMpJY4SIyRsB2xuvaiiQMC50Tz7RLf5boM-oz6AT-cUj8EkI-YrA5xVAy-GumvlTGrJLQoNpmWSMCG9UB2L64/s1600/15mongolian2-popup.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>“My vision,” he told me, “is to have more skilled engineers to develop Mongolia. To do that, everything has to start from the beginning.” In the past decade, Mongolia, which had limited landlines, invested heavily in its information technology infrastructure and now has an extensive 3G network. Most homes in Ulan Bator have Internet connections, and almost everyone, including nomads, has at least one cellphone. Even on the steppe, with only sheep in sight, you can get a signal. Zurgaanjin had students watch the Circuits and Electronics MOOC lectures at home, just like thousands around the world, but he wanted to supplement them with real-world labs. Tony Kim, a college friend working on his Ph.D. in electrical engineering at Stanford, agreed to visit Mongolia for 10 weeks and guide students through the labs using real equipment. Kim brought three suitcases of electronics supplies, immediately making his classroom one of the best-equipped labs in the entire country. Because the class was not approved by the ministry of education, students had to take it in addition to their regular courses. Battushig persuaded his parents to upgrade the Internet speed at their home from 1 megabit per second to 3 (the average in the United States is 8.6) to make it easier to watch the lectures. Battushig was one of 20 students, ranging in age from 13 to 17, to enroll in the class. About half dropped out. The course is difficult in any setting — M.I.T. sophomores often pull all-nighters — and the Mongolian students were taking it in a second language. Battushig, however, thrived. “I can’t compare it to a regular class,” he said. “I had never done that kind of thing before. It was really a watershed moment for me.” To help his classmates, he made videos in Mongolian that offered pointers and explanations of difficult concepts and posted them on YouTube. Kim, who had taught similar classes at M.I.T., told me, “If Battushig, at the age of 15, were a student at M.I.T., he would be one of the top students — if not the top.”<br /><br /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22.0049991607666px;">In the past year and a half, more than 100 schools, including Harvard, Caltech and the University of Texas, have invested millions of dollars in MOOCs. Many in higher education believe that these courses can make a quality education more affordable and accessible to far more students and eventually provide additional revenue streams for the universities that offer them. Critics, though, argue that MOOCs threaten the economic survival of nonelite colleges and are an inadequate replacement for the teaching and support of live professors. Anant Agarwal, a professor of Circuits and Electronics and the president of edX, a MOOC platform started last year by M.I.T. and Harvard, said that seeing Kim and Zurgaanjin combine his online lectures with in-person teaching spurred edX to help organize 20 such “blended” classes. “It was extraordinarily creative,” he said. “It changed the way I think.”</span><br /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22.0049991607666px;"><br /></span>Battushig’s success also showed that schools could use MOOCs to find exceptional students all over the globe. After the course, Kim and Zurgaanjin suggested that Battushig apply to M.I.T., and he has just started his freshman year — one of 88 international students in a freshman class of 1,116. Stuart Schmill, the dean of admissions, said Battushig’s perfect score proved that he could handle the work. Schmill also said that although M.I.T. already seeks students from around the world, many come via special programs organized by charities or international schools. (Zurgaanjin attended the United World College in Wales before applying to M.I.T.) “The MOOCs may well offer the opportunity for us to get more students from remote areas who haven’t been in these magnet cultures,” Schmill said. Battushig, who is now 17, settled into his German-themed dorm last month, a single in Desmond House. He has begun classes, including introductory courses in electronics, solid-state chemistry and biology, and had his photo taken with the renowned physics professor Walter Lewin (which he posted on Facebook). He joined photography and tennis clubs — and, he said, discovered that “I’m really a great player at billiards.” He is heeding his mother’s warning not to overindulge on pizza (he has a self-imposed limit of two slices a week). Battushig may be embracing student life, but as his father told me months earlier when we sat down to a family lunch of Korean-style kimbap, rice-noodle salad and cooked sheep: “He is thinking, all the time, how to solve problems. He has so many ideas. He often says to me, ‘I want to make good things for humans.’ If he does good things for humans, he does a great thing for us.”

The Boy Genius of Ulan Bator

Battushig Myanganbayar and his sister outside their home in Mongolia. Days before I was to meet Battushig Myanganbayar at his home in Mongol...

Read more »

In Mongolia, a Gift Horse for Hagel

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuvyXY7bpfakff4zYieps8SeWJBu5oHsZpmKkgK3M7K6i3m2AetktDflrCaY-ySYzhzIffa0sETYnn6_Jb_ws8-n1xh2b1tJDNfZHJOOAAS70d9AELrYLihprDDknokOvH7tRsU65g0o0/s1600/10HAGEL-01-articleLarge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuvyXY7bpfakff4zYieps8SeWJBu5oHsZpmKkgK3M7K6i3m2AetktDflrCaY-ySYzhzIffa0sETYnn6_Jb_ws8-n1xh2b1tJDNfZHJOOAAS70d9AELrYLihprDDknokOvH7tRsU65g0o0/s1600/10HAGEL-01-articleLarge.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span class="caption-text" style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: nyt-cheltenham-sh, georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: start;">Mongolia’s minister of defense, Bat-Erdene Dashdemberel, left, presented U.S. Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel with a horse as a gift on Thursday.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: nyt-cheltenham-sh, georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px; text-align: start;"> </span><span class="credit" itemprop="copyrightHolder" style="background-color: white; color: #999999; display: inline-block; font-family: nyt-cheltenham-sh, georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 0.6875rem; line-height: 1.125rem; text-align: start;"><span class="visually-hidden" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(0px 0px 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 1px;">Credit</span>Alex Wong/Getty Images</span></div><a name="more"></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><center><script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><!-- tod-movie_main_Blog1_300x250_as --><ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-6499851386158628" data-ad-slot="4757842990" style="display: inline-block; height: 250px; width: 300px;"></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></center><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span class="credit" itemprop="copyrightHolder" style="background-color: white; color: #999999; display: inline-block; font-family: nyt-cheltenham-sh, georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 0.6875rem; line-height: 1.125rem; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span class="credit" itemprop="copyrightHolder" style="background-color: white; color: #999999; display: inline-block; font-family: nyt-cheltenham-sh, georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; font-size: 0.6875rem; line-height: 1.125rem; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><br />ULAN BATOR, Mongolia — Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel knew even before he landed here that there was no way he could keep the horse. In the vastness of landlocked Mongolia’s steppes, horses have always been a big deal, and when Mr. Hagel’s predecessor, Donald H. Rumsfeld, made the first visit to the country by an American secretary of defense in 2005, his hosts honored him with the traditional gift of a horse. Mr. Rumsfeld named the black-maned gelding Montana, because the landscape reminded him of the state where his wife, Joyce, was born. But along with Montana came some delicate issues of diplomacy, logistics and politics, not the least of which was whether American taxpayers would have to bear the cost of upkeep. After a great deal of head scratching, Mr. Rumsfeld ultimately had to leave Montana behind, to be watched over by the horse’s herder, the Defense Department said, “until his next visit.” When President George W. Bush followed Mr. Rumsfeld to Mongolia a short time later, the White House quietly persuaded Mongolian officials not to give the president a horse, and they complied. Mr. Bush did partake in Mongolian horse culture another way, by drinking the local brew, fermented mare’s milk.<br /><br />Mr. Hagel arrived here for his official visit on Thursday and received some milk curd, which he nibbled at the airport. But once again the question of a gift horse loomed. As his motorcade entered the imposing grounds of the Mongolian Ministry of Defense, the animal stood off to the side of a ceremonial yurt, its tawny tail swishing idly in the breeze. A Mongolian herder stood beside it, holding the reins and peeking around the yurt at the dignitaries. There was excitement in Mr. Hagel’s motorcade. But first things first. Mr. Hagel had to go through the protocol of meetings with his Mongolian counterpart about the array of issues that dominate American-Mongolian relations — namely, thanking Mongolia for sending troops to Iraq and Afghanistan. Bat-Erdene Dashdemberel, the minister of defense, spoke warmly about the strength of the American-Mongolian bond. “Mongolia is a peace-loving country,” he said of a land that still reveres its native hero, Genghis Khan. “This principle is the core of the relationship.” With the diplomatic business done came the time for the gift ceremony. The herder brought the horse to Mr. Hagel, and Mr. Bat-Erdene gestured toward its mane. “This will be your horse from now on,” he said. “You can name it.” “Well, thank you,” replied Mr. Hagel, a native Nebraskan. “I am honored.” Next came the moment everyone was waiting for: “I’m going to name this horse Shamrock.” Not Nebraska, or Omaha? Or even Cornhusker? “Shamrock was the name of the mascot of the high school I graduated from,” Mr. Hagel said. Then he turned sadly to address Shamrock. “You be good while I’m gone,” he said.

In Mongolia, a Gift Horse for Hagel

Mongolia’s minister of defense, Bat-Erdene Dashdemberel, left, presented U.S. Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel with a horse as a gift on Thu...

Read more »

EQUIPMENT & PACKING TIPS

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXqbI_2fgC26p2WHXkqnQnPVRUf7A2EE0UwbfsApGEWgA-sZiF6PyJey-OmeyOekrtNvBUuFwnZSRrIj0eMwpE-ByzGBIPF9gbTUmYzPHbEsxo4w5nHXk05zdupV5zUoA7CHRDkZpGEAA/s1600/bike_gear_layout.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="165" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXqbI_2fgC26p2WHXkqnQnPVRUf7A2EE0UwbfsApGEWgA-sZiF6PyJey-OmeyOekrtNvBUuFwnZSRrIj0eMwpE-ByzGBIPF9gbTUmYzPHbEsxo4w5nHXk05zdupV5zUoA7CHRDkZpGEAA/s1600/bike_gear_layout.png" width="400" /></a></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><br /></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">A detailed packing list is suggested for each of our trips in the trip information section. Please check the recommended packing list for the specific trip you are taking.<br /><a name="more"></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><center><script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><!-- tod-movie_main_Blog1_300x250_as --><ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-6499851386158628" data-ad-slot="4757842990" style="display: inline-block; height: 250px; width: 300px;"></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></center><br />Our suggested packing lists do not aim to be comprehensive or exhaustive; we know that every traveler has different needs. If you feel there is something else you should bring with you, please do so, and when in doubt contact us for a recommendation. You should pack everything in a soft bag or backpack rather than in a suitcase or trunk, which will make it easier to load into vehicles and on pack animals. The following general packing list gives recommendations on the type of equipment or clothing we have found most practical, based on our experience in Mongolia.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>backpack or soft bag</strong> – best if foldable.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>sleeping bag</strong> - rated comfortable down to -5C for summer trips, -15C to -20C for spring and autumn, and -40C for winter, if you are coming between June and August and staying exclusively in ger camps (no tent camping) you may not need a sleeping bag. In this case, we recommend you bring a cotton or silk sleeping bag liner, as ger camp sheets are always undersized and the blankets provided may be scratchy or coarse.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>waterproof bag cover</strong> (on treks and horse treks, expedition style trips) – one large enough to cover your backpack or bag and a smaller one for your day pack.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>day pack</strong> – should have wide, comfortable shoulder straps.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>head lamp/flashlight</strong> – a head lamp is preferable</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>spare batteries/bulbs</strong></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>personal medications</strong> – our first aid kits are equipped with basic first aid supplies, but by Mongolian law we are not allowed to dispense any medications. You should bring common medicines for headache, stomach upset, colds or allergies, based on your experience and your knowledge of what you might require. Bring a sufficient supply of all prescription medications.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>towel</strong> – a travel towel that is compact, very absorbent, and fast drying is the best kind</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>riding boots</strong> (for horse treks) – almost any style of riding boot will be sufficient, but the taller ones are more comfortable for longer rides unless you will be wearing chaps.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>hiking boots</strong> (for treks) – should be waterproof and breathable, with Gore Tex boots being the best for Kharkhira and other Altai treks. This is a permafrost area, and water is trapped at the surface, so it will be difficult to avoid some wet ground.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>hiking shoes</strong> (for all trips) – it is best to wear hiking shoes for all trips, which give good support and protect your feet from rocks, loose stones, etc. Boots or shoes for non-trekking trips need not be waterproof.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>waterproof shell/rain jacket or poncho</strong> – in most cases a waterproof/windproof shell with a hood is ideal. Ponchos are more practical on a horse trek as they can cover your saddle and prevent your seat from being wet. Jackets or ponchos for horse treks should be of a subdued, darker color, and preferably of a material that does not crackle or rustle much. Some Mongolian horses are spooked by unfamiliar bright/light colors and noises from plastic or nylon rain gear.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>waterproof pants</strong> – should fit over your other pants, and from May through September need not have a lining or should have a very light, breathable lining.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>fleece jacket or warm sweater/jumper</strong> – we find a fleece jacket with a full length zipper in front to be the most practical, and wind-stopper fleece the best for spring and autumn.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>chaps</strong> (for horse treks)</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>riding helmet</strong> (for horse treks)</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>cotton t-shirts</strong> – two to three T-shirts will usually suffice</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>long sleeve shirts</strong> – one light weight, fast drying, light colored one, preferably with buttons down the front so you can wear it open over a T-shirt for sun protection – and one medium weight for cool evenings.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>lightweight trousers</strong> – two pair, and if you have one with zip-off legs that can double as shorts, this is ideal</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>shorts </strong>– the fast drying kind are ideal</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>warm hat</strong> – wool or fleece, which can cover your ears</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>long underwear</strong> – (for treks and horse treks) in summer a lightweight top and bottom will suffice. Your long underwear should be the synthetic kind that wicks away moisture from the skin and keeps you dry</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>socks</strong> – socks should be of a material that keeps your feet dry</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>underwear</strong> – fast drying. Sports/athletic bras offering good support are best for countryside portions of all trips – roads are bumpy here!</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>sun hat </strong>– should shade your face, ears, and the back of your neck</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>gloves</strong> – lightweight for trekking and riding, warm for spring and autumn trips</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>sandals</strong> – to be worn around camp, in the shower, and wading in streams or lakes. The best kind have adjustable straps around the ankle, and will stay on your feet if you are walking in a slippery stream bed</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>sun glasses</strong> – should be dark and offer UV protection</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>sun cream</strong> – choose one with stronger protection (SPF 20 or more) if you are light skinned. A sunscreen in stick form that can be applied to lips, nose, cheeks, and the tops of your ears is a very handy item</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>spare glasses</strong> – carry them in a sturdy case</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>walking shoes</strong> – should have sturdy soles and good support</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>insect repellent</strong> – read the label carefully and avoid those that are toxic to fish and amphibians, or wash these off well away from rivers, lakes, and streams</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>resealing (ziploc) plastic bags</strong> – bring enough to protect your documents, money, camera, binoculars, and other items from wetness, sand, and dust. A few extra bags are handy for repacking wet clothing until you reach your next camp and can dry them out</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>binoculars/camera</strong> – carry in a soft padded case if possible</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>water bottle</strong> – for treks and horse treks, should have a wide mouth for refilling easily</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>wet tissues</strong> – choose unscented ones that will not attract insects</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>watch/alarm clock</strong> – an inexpensive watch with an alarm is a handy item</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>money belt/pouch</strong> – it is preferable to have a flat pouch that can be worn inside clothing</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>insurance confirmation copy</strong> – must be left on file in our offices</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>emergency contact number</strong> – must be left on file in our offices</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>casual clothes for travel/city</strong> – you may want to bring an extra folding bag so you can leave any spare items in the hotel or at our offices</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">It is a good idea to try on clothing at home to ensure that what you bring is sized for comfortable layering. Weather in Mongolia is unpredictable, and layering your clothes for warmth is a practical alternative to packing bulky items you may never wear.</div>

EQUIPMENT & PACKING TIPS

A detailed packing list is suggested for each of our trips in the trip information section. Please check the recommended packing list for th...

Read more »

Travel in Mongolia

<h1 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-transform: uppercase;">GENERAL INFORMATION</h1><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioCVjZo-rp_8wGoBl2LaQkgQxU9qNglz1PT3YgDmpCk_QhUdY1RqyVYkU46zof8-W4mz_FR948GUq1yA9VnZVU4BHH78WV9mPbKG7-7m2iPeqyPY_Kbg0ItMBi1S3-PVtv0N6WR-VGL50/s1600/Khoridal+Saridag+Mountain+Biking+Tour+in+Mongolia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="125" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioCVjZo-rp_8wGoBl2LaQkgQxU9qNglz1PT3YgDmpCk_QhUdY1RqyVYkU46zof8-W4mz_FR948GUq1yA9VnZVU4BHH78WV9mPbKG7-7m2iPeqyPY_Kbg0ItMBi1S3-PVtv0N6WR-VGL50/s1600/Khoridal+Saridag+Mountain+Biking+Tour+in+Mongolia.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Trips vary greatly depending on the objective. Some trips are designed to cover a lot of ground - if you like off-road adventures and want to see the most of Mongolia that you can in a short time, these are for you. Other trips focus on specific interests, such as trekking, wildlife watching, or participating in cultural events and nomadic life. These trips move at a slower pace and you have more time to explore, experience your surroundings, and get to know local people. On every trip there is a chance that<br /><a name="more"></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhttVolfebWc5sL-RTjBEoSv5d1nGB9cCgeVliUoeDoANC2-kn-p_GFb30tZ47626IQoN7fEyxbUzVQNjAhCjDeleZTWnLbYtHUUXFN-qTGwK18vBsvik7Aen-lZLgczYI3GP2CeG9MhQI/s1600/tour.gif" /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Доор дарсанаар мэдээ автоматаар уншин</div><center><script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><!-- tod-movie_main_Blog1_300x250_as --><ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-6499851386158628" data-ad-slot="4757842990" style="display: inline-block; height: 250px; width: 300px;"><br /></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></center><br /><br />your guide may have to change plans. Mother nature doesn’t always cooperate with our itineraries, and part of the quirky charm that is travelling in a place like Mongolia is that your vehicle, or even your aeroplane may get stuck in mud, the local lams may consult the moon and decide to move a festival date by a couple days, or you may happen upon an unexpected celebration in a village that just can’t be missed. Don’t worry, our field and office staff are always in contact via satellite phone or other mysterious means, and we will make adjustments accordingly in order to assure your safety and enjoyment.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The following information should give you a good idea of how Mongolian Ways trips are run. For more detailed information about a particular trip, we encourage you to contact us.</div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="1" name="1"></a>How are the trips run?</h2><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDv24TUtHQmNGQoXiYdnRKVhyGQX2rt-npUshNFWPAYdCR34skRRWvSf5ECgEfMCG2wDCFD2Ozk-UyxKfwWaEqCY4Fo6ugYHL4y925Fk6Kqj1YmgGqZzqT80t3LEz8S_Zhd6EUMSnvYoc/s1600/130111014.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="106" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDv24TUtHQmNGQoXiYdnRKVhyGQX2rt-npUshNFWPAYdCR34skRRWvSf5ECgEfMCG2wDCFD2Ozk-UyxKfwWaEqCY4Fo6ugYHL4y925Fk6Kqj1YmgGqZzqT80t3LEz8S_Zhd6EUMSnvYoc/s1600/130111014.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Our fixed departures are carefully researched trips, designed to maximize your time for leisure, outdoor activities, sightseeing, and … having an adventure! If you request a custom tour from us, we do our best to design an itinerary that will suit your needs and interests, based on the information you provide us and our extensive experience traveling in Mongolia. Some days may look very long, with a lot of driving, while others may seem sparse on activities. Mongolia is a very large country with very little infrastructure, so we may have to make many kilometers in one day in order to reach our camp or to show you the most spectacular sights. Be assured that the days are organized so that overall you will be able to make the most of your time in Mongolia and have a once in a life time</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5B3T_SyBkLT4AEiM8mzsDOioMG7NZXVWgrzk9DwYRbY3vvxAxmG3fPRMj8t8x5haB_7RyJYYgcCdoKZ4nx2yW3-0qIPGOd16LiYfaTRlCEUF5gadCEYSybLbQrNxSLjirQTCvpc-7B0g/s1600/canoes-van.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5B3T_SyBkLT4AEiM8mzsDOioMG7NZXVWgrzk9DwYRbY3vvxAxmG3fPRMj8t8x5haB_7RyJYYgcCdoKZ4nx2yW3-0qIPGOd16LiYfaTRlCEUF5gadCEYSybLbQrNxSLjirQTCvpc-7B0g/s1600/canoes-van.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>experience. Adventure travel is always a bit unpredictable due to the nature of the terrain and the experiences we seek. Sometimes, the forces of nature or a change in the dates of a festival will require some changes in the plan. Flight schedules may change at a moments notice, or muddy ground may make a route impassable. All of our staff, at the office and in the field, are there for you, and we will make our best effort to handle any situation so that you will have an enjoyable and safe trip. In rare cases it may be necessary to change some of the places we will visit, the order of days in the trip, the route taken, or the mode of transportation. Flexibility and a resilient sense of humor will guarantee that you have a great experience in Mongolia.<br /><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="2" name="2"></a>Where will I stay the nights?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">In Mongolia you will find many different modes of accommodation:</div><ul style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><li><strong>Hotels:</strong> In Ulaanbaatar there is a wide range of hotels ranging from 5* luxury hotels to very simple guesthouses. As a general rule, in the city we use 4* hotels which offer comfort and value. If you are designing a custom trip with us, we will ask you what your accommodation preference is.</li><li><strong>Ger camps:</strong> Out of the city, ger camps are the most commonly available full service facilities. Ger camps use the traditional home of steppe nomads, the felt covered ger, as guest rooms. Each ger normally <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxLm6iwba0zoyLENU_-CaTLJnCl68q_0LfZ5zvIDG6Ywxc_keVQxuRU8LfggEgbae30bdIxBwl-4uQ7TRQ8YFJpaJU8etgP5Yt1MFIFjpWmhPYCGOT66bYVCNvXQbjYrKNWebTKDVH1z4/s1600/mongolia-hotels.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxLm6iwba0zoyLENU_-CaTLJnCl68q_0LfZ5zvIDG6Ywxc_keVQxuRU8LfggEgbae30bdIxBwl-4uQ7TRQ8YFJpaJU8etgP5Yt1MFIFjpWmhPYCGOT66bYVCNvXQbjYrKNWebTKDVH1z4/s1600/mongolia-hotels.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>has between 2 and 4 single beds in it, along with a traditional stove, a simple table, and sometimes cupboards and wash stands. There will generally be a central building that houses hot water showers, sinks, and western style toilets. This building will be some distance from your ger. In a separate building there will be a restaurant or dining room, and sometimes a bar or a recreation room. Many camps have outdoor recreation facilities such as a volleyball or badminton net. Ger camps usually run a generator or provide lighting from solar charged batteries for some part of the night, allowing you to have light for using the washroom facilities, reading, charging your camera gear, or playing a game of cards in the evening.</li><li><strong>Camping:</strong> Mongolia offers fantastic camping possibilities in beautiful landscapes, and often the places we visit will have no ger camps or local hotels. On all of our camping trips we provide our guests with high quality tents and mattresses. On most vehicle supported trips, your camp will be set up safari-style with a toilet tent for privacy and a shower tent with warm water showers. On treks or kayaking trips, where equipment must be carried by pack animals or in the boats, the camps will be expedition style. No formal toilet or shower facilities will be available. You will use a field toilet and we will provide you with water for washing up.</li><li><strong>Nomadic Family Stays:</strong> Most likely, if you have selected on of our fixed departures, you will be staying at least one night with a nomadic family. This gives you a chance to get closely acquainted with the way of life and culture of the Mongolian people. If the group is small, we may stay in the family’s gers, using our mattresses and sleeping bags. If our group is larger, we will set up our tents next to the family’s ger so we have more room to spread out. Most nomadic families do not have formal toilets in their summer camps, so the most you can expect to find is a designated toilet trench that may be screened on three sides. No showering facilities will be available. Nomads wash in basins their gers, or in a nearby river in warm weather.</li><li><strong>Local hotels:</strong> A local hotel might appear in your program. We use them only when there is no other option. You shouldn’t expect anything better than a cheap, often ill-maintained motel. Rarely will you find any running hot water there, if indeed there is running water. However, local hotels offer secure shelters in towns where camping is not practical, and a place to lie down and sleep.</li></ul><div class="textright" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: right;"><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="3" name="3"></a>What will I eat?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk0GcpM5wjnhShtFAWwVLgRtQLZynLAYXLiuFyMXDgnNIJzzkLRqBQ_oVtQt2fEoTp5_nTlYxhcUjsr3onD-_R6xjGKp196agyGRiwiSnHyUDu_x8ur9FybuS2pM9TDixbBE-I37gCv8o/s1600/hoshor1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk0GcpM5wjnhShtFAWwVLgRtQLZynLAYXLiuFyMXDgnNIJzzkLRqBQ_oVtQt2fEoTp5_nTlYxhcUjsr3onD-_R6xjGKp196agyGRiwiSnHyUDu_x8ur9FybuS2pM9TDixbBE-I37gCv8o/s1600/hoshor1.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>It really depends on the kind of trip you are taking. Check your itinerary to see what kinds of accommodation you will be in. In Ulaanbaatar, you can expect a good variety of quality restaurants with international foods. In ger camps, we generally eat breakfast and dinner in camp and take a packed lunch for the day. Your packed lunch will be carried in appropriate containers to prevent spillage or spoiling. Ger camps serve both Mongolian and international foods, and there will usually be a choice of main dish. On camping days, what you eat is up to you and the<br />accompanying staff. Because the shared costs of en expedition cook is higher in smaller groups, groups of less than 8 travelers may not be accompanied by a cook.<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7OJdlUDs4TYSYnjf3cYzCwvKKHYYgOxUUE6XfkloHYxTdX4p070QOGLp_4UKKPIVgUf8Yza_3NIdsYlfGzOJvcwJSuZPwXR_-0Jxs1YxURETAqz1syalDn9cpwU6dJJ9nPbl2wCTMiw0/s1600/1316585966202.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7OJdlUDs4TYSYnjf3cYzCwvKKHYYgOxUUE6XfkloHYxTdX4p070QOGLp_4UKKPIVgUf8Yza_3NIdsYlfGzOJvcwJSuZPwXR_-0Jxs1YxURETAqz1syalDn9cpwU6dJJ9nPbl2wCTMiw0/s1600/1316585966202.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /> In this case, the guides and drivers will be cooking for you (by <a href="http://www.testsforge.com/expert/jeffrey_driedger.html" style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">jeffrey driedger</a>). All our guides have had basic cooks training, but not all of them are great chefs, so if you feel like, they will be happy to let you assist them. On expeditions where there is no vehicle support, there will be dried and canned foods available, but fresh fruits and vegetables often cannot be transported beyond the first couple days. For groups of more than 7 travelers, we usually send a cook, which in this case you shouldn’t worry - the food will be just great! Please let us know if you have any food preferences or restrictions, or if you are following a special diet. We will do what ever we can to meet your preferences and needs with advance notice. </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="4" name="4"></a>Which cars will we use?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">In Mongolia there are approximately 1200 kilometers (745 miles) of asphalt sealed roads. The majority of roads are no more than dirt tracks, some of them sandy, others rocky. 4WD vehicles are a necessity. By default, we will be providing Japanese made Mitsubishi Delica vans for most of our trips. These are rather modern, well equipped all-wheel-drive vehicles. Due to the very short<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAZDmeouAlriI6inHgg6b_KVh9OZL-oZja4GzRk00o0ICnQNyLfBIp-Q64qZHlr5xEnRi1Gbap1IDKDOpyxEcaYzmUc0k8A-zgCLIM70GZo70RSN3JQ_9C5SRgxlspn-XTwh7PI21-chE/s1600/utewagon2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAZDmeouAlriI6inHgg6b_KVh9OZL-oZja4GzRk00o0ICnQNyLfBIp-Q64qZHlr5xEnRi1Gbap1IDKDOpyxEcaYzmUc0k8A-zgCLIM70GZo70RSN3JQ_9C5SRgxlspn-XTwh7PI21-chE/s1600/utewagon2.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>travel season in Mongolia, the possibility of keeping a new, top of the line fleet, is literally non-existent, and is common to everybody operating in the field of tourism here in Mongolia. These Mitsubishi Delica are very often being purchased as a second-hand cars (mostly from Japan), and on top of it, are subject to constant off-road trip, usually several thousand kilometers each summer. Thus, their mechanical condition is not always at its peak. We are making every possible effort to check each of these vehicles prior to each trip, make sure that the vehicle is properly maintained, and that all system are working properly. However, some mechanical problems might occur while on the trip. Some of these problems could be solved locally, by the drivers, while some would require replacing a broken car. It might take anything from few hours to 48 hours until we can bring an alternative vehicle. Based on our past experience, we had never had to stop a trip because of a nonoperable vehicle, though this possibility should also be taken into account. On some of our trips, especially those destined for remote and less accessible areas, Russian made UAZ vans would be provided. Though at first<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7BLnr9dutJ5DIASnWb-j8bvqo_r8CnLf3oYSbKZPInV7CewO2j5-uByOgam7xW7mHTpgCLQcOaQKBLLHMg_ax7tcINAPghyphenhyphen6DWy7YWFpibgaX2S0EASyrdJ-y0vFR5lGxRjCjogKrJwY/s1600/Uaz-469-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="135" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7BLnr9dutJ5DIASnWb-j8bvqo_r8CnLf3oYSbKZPInV7CewO2j5-uByOgam7xW7mHTpgCLQcOaQKBLLHMg_ax7tcINAPghyphenhyphen6DWy7YWFpibgaX2S0EASyrdJ-y0vFR5lGxRjCjogKrJwY/s1600/Uaz-469-1.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>sight they look a bit rough, these vehicles have great off-road abilities, and more importantly they are very simple to repair. As the chances of finding a garage or spare parts out of Ulaanbaatar are slim, and road conditions are rough, it is very important to have a vehicle which is easy to fix with whatever is at hand. The average vehicle used in countryside travel in Mongolia travels every 10 days the same number of off-road kilometers as the average SUV in Western countries would travel in a year or two! And, these vehicles do it again and again, throughout the year, in snow, sand, mud, and on ice. You will see luxurious vehicles on the roads outside of Ulaanbaatar, and you might ask yourself “why couldn't we be riding in one of those?” We use Russian vans on all our out-of-the-way trips so you won’t spend your time on holiday waiting for spare parts to be sent to your group, or worse yet, continuing in the back of an open truck while your vehicle is towed back to the capital. Russian vans are equipped with bench seats, and the ride can be somewhat bumpy, so if you experience car sickness please come prepared with appropriate medications. </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="5" name="5"></a>What documents do I need?</h2><ul style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><li>Passport - You should have with you a passport which is valid for at least 6 months.</li><li>Visa - There are different requirements depending on which passport you hold. Most travelers need a tourist visa to enter Mongolia. At the time this document was compiled, US and Israeli citizens do not need a visa to visit Mongolia for less than 30 days. You should check with the Mongolian embassy or consulate serving your area. For further information, you are welcome to contact us.</li><li>Immigrations Declaration - Upon arrival, you will have to fill out a form that you present to border officials with your passport when you enter Mongolia. You should put down in the address field the name of the hotel in Ulaanbaatar that is listed on your trip confirmation or itinerary. Medical record and release of liability – Everyone traveling with Mongolian Ways must complete and sign a trip application which includes these two documents.</li><li>Travel Insurance - Everyone traveling with Mongolian Ways is required to carry travel insurance which includes medical evacuation and which is valid for the duration of the trip.</li><li>Vaccinations – At the time this document was compiled, no vaccinations are required. Please check with your local health authorities or your doctor for updated information prior to your departure.</li></ul><div class="textright" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: right;"><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="6" name="6"></a>Can I drink the water?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">We will provide you with bottled or purified drinking water throughout your trip.</div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="7" name="7"></a>What about photos and video?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Mongolians really like to pose for the camera, but always make sure you ask their permission before you shoot. They will be extremely happy if you send them copies of the photos, so bringing big, white, blank stickers on which they can write their addresses might be good idea. If you are shooting on film, bring sufficient rolls with you as not all types are available in Mongolia. A polarizing filter is also very useful, along with spare batteries. There is a lot of light in Mongolia, so 100 – 200 ASA films should be fine. If you will be using a video camera or a digital camera, you can recharge your batteries in most ger camps. On our photo expeditions we provide transformers so you can charge most equipment in the vehicles. Please be aware that chargers should be 220v compatible, and you will need a plug adapter with two round pins. <span class="textright" style="text-align: right;"><a href="http://www.mongolian-ways.com/mongoliatravel.htm" style="color: #4d671f;">› top</a></span></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="8" name="8"></a>What is the electricity supply like?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The current in Mongolia is 220V, the same as the EU standard. The sockets are mostly two thick or sometimes thin rounded pins. As there is not any strict standard in Mongolia, you might find different sockets, so bringing a multi-pin adapter is a good idea. <span class="textright" style="text-align: right;"><a href="http://www.mongolian-ways.com/mongoliatravel.htm" style="color: #4d671f;">› top</a></span></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="9" name="9"></a>What is the local currency?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The local currency called Tugruk. As of March 2007 the exchange rate floats between 1160 and 1170 Tugruk to the USD. The preferred foreign currency for exchange purposes is US $ or Euro, but Pounds Sterling, Russian Rubles and Chinese RMB can also be exchanged in many places in Ulaanbaatar. If you bring US $, make sure the notes were printed after 1995 (the big heads rather than the small ones). 50$ and 100$ notes will get a better exchange rate than smaller notes. Exchange places are open 24/7. </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="10" name="10"></a>Can I connect to the internet?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">In Ulaanbaatar- no problem, there are plenty of internet cafes, and most hotels are equipped with business centers that have internet facilities. Out of the city, you will be able to connect only in the provincial capitals. Unless you are going on a remote expedition style trip, you will visit a provincial capital once every three to four days on average.<br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBExTDrhu35xNZv3lpdieCOMKMdK_X7_rPV2EA7kTKQxIGZm2GlPW5DVAf3weTcaWUBQFQ1p8XRoYzuv_2wAySdCPoHkAnkXM8MoFtGw5wI7OBpT8MW2xwcwPm4iQTily9xPW-jfI-JKM/s1600/289054_10150320832881604_1716313530_o.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBExTDrhu35xNZv3lpdieCOMKMdK_X7_rPV2EA7kTKQxIGZm2GlPW5DVAf3weTcaWUBQFQ1p8XRoYzuv_2wAySdCPoHkAnkXM8MoFtGw5wI7OBpT8MW2xwcwPm4iQTily9xPW-jfI-JKM/s1600/289054_10150320832881604_1716313530_o.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="11" name="11"></a>Will my cell phone (handy) work in Mongolia?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">If you do use GSM phone, it will work in Mongolia if you have international roaming covering the region or if you buy a local SIM/chip, but you will only be able to get a signal in Ulaanbaatar, its surroundings, the provincial capitals, and a very small number of towns (soum centers). </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="12" name="12"></a>Luggage on flights?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">On your international flight you will generally be restricted to 25 kg. Excess baggage charges are calculated per kilo of overweight, not per piece of luggage, and charges in and out of Mongolia are generally quite high. On domestic flights in Mongolia, you are allowed only 15 kg (including hand luggage). The excess baggage charge for domestic flights is about $2 per kg.<span class="textright" style="text-align: right;"></span><br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKWwk6BSqDjS0JA-JhF8K14Mv867S_vR5KN6dIfmX9NZbuJXnF6AVEERgPfCqhpX8kC5l2GWuUXWgmIk5YXLW5JEXS0aA4wl_g1cuuieyBBylC_M8FjUUtoGOhYRwta_-x7MQ92Sw1SNs/s1600/ulaanbaatar-pop-concert-615.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKWwk6BSqDjS0JA-JhF8K14Mv867S_vR5KN6dIfmX9NZbuJXnF6AVEERgPfCqhpX8kC5l2GWuUXWgmIk5YXLW5JEXS0aA4wl_g1cuuieyBBylC_M8FjUUtoGOhYRwta_-x7MQ92Sw1SNs/s1600/ulaanbaatar-pop-concert-615.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="13" name="13"></a>What is the airport like?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Chinggis Khan International Airport is a small airport, there is only one terminal and one departure gate for international flights. When you land, you will go through immigrations, presenting your immigration declaration, then collect your baggage at the belt. Baggage often takes a long time to unload. Then you will pass through customs, where you may be requested to pass one or more of your bags through an x-ray machine. Your guide will meet you in the arrivals hall. If you have not arranged travel services with Mongolian Ways, you can catch a taxi to Ulaanbaatar at the exit doors, and there will sometimes be a public bus there. Negotiate your payment before you get in the taxi, a ride to town should cost you no more than 6000 Tugruk (March 2007). When you leave Ulaanbaatar, it is highly recommended that you arrive at the airport 2 hours prior to departure, and an hour and a half before domestic flights. As of 2007 there is no airport tax.</div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="14" name="14"></a>Is it safe?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Mongolia is probably one of the safest places on earth. Even during the collapse of the communist regime, Mongolia’s revolution was a peaceful one. In the city, when you go out at night, we recommend you take a taxi unless you are staying in the central part of town, due to increase in public drunkenness. In very crowded areas, including the Black Market and the Naadam festivities, there is a lot of pick pocketing, so it is better not to carry any non-essential valuables and to put your cash in a money belt or pouch inside the waistband of your trousers or a zipped inside pocket. Violence is rare except in and around inexpensive bars, where you should not venture unless you are in the company of Mongolians who know the establishment well.<span class="textright" style="text-align: right;"></span><br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcv1RZkwrBQ8uWPc4gyi6ZkiO42exLl_gjMzrsco8HdhNtG-wNvA_KTbpGD5YHU68AQruflJoyDExqiPeH6GMdaxDiEjpthgp8pDUUgUdn6ICQ8-O5bCXa5r6T8m6q3blVQ6soXWP_5Ts/s1600/154596459+mongolia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcv1RZkwrBQ8uWPc4gyi6ZkiO42exLl_gjMzrsco8HdhNtG-wNvA_KTbpGD5YHU68AQruflJoyDExqiPeH6GMdaxDiEjpthgp8pDUUgUdn6ICQ8-O5bCXa5r6T8m6q3blVQ6soXWP_5Ts/s1600/154596459+mongolia.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="15" name="15"></a>Is there any good shopping?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Most goods are imported to Mongolia, and therefore quite expensive. However, Mongolian cashmere, handicrafts, and artwork in the form of paintings, embroideries, and felt crafts can be an excellent value. The law prohibits the export of antiquities, and your baggage will be x-rayed at the airport prior to departure. When purchasing anything which appears to be an antique, ask the sales person to provide you with a stamped paper (usually matched to a photo of the item in question) which shows where the item was purchased from and that is not illegal for export. </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="16" name="16"></a>How do I call home?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">International calls from a hotel are generally quite expensive. The cheapest way to call is using a calling card which can be purchased in many locations around town, including the post offices. Another option is to call from the main post office itself, which is open 24 hours a day. There are 4 different companies which offer international direct dialing, so you can compare the prices to your destination, and use the alternate international dialing codes: 00, 001, 002, 003 as appropriate before entering the country code. When using a calling card, the code is generally 00 + country code etc.<br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1il3ZYosDYNEUFXom1Kx-hyZhtpC3wGztq-Mo8RbG-PDWCr8Bu56Ud7_y4ZCHtdd5tPC6a4MUTddziWA9lqsno8MTq8lFjdcaQGpBZs6qoh4VWp3lf7wvUtDivfCEttxN48y1-W-yxV0/s1600/8352197057_267e294a07.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1il3ZYosDYNEUFXom1Kx-hyZhtpC3wGztq-Mo8RbG-PDWCr8Bu56Ud7_y4ZCHtdd5tPC6a4MUTddziWA9lqsno8MTq8lFjdcaQGpBZs6qoh4VWp3lf7wvUtDivfCEttxN48y1-W-yxV0/s1600/8352197057_267e294a07.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="17" name="17"></a>Local food, can I eat it?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The local diet is based on meat during the winter time and milk products during summer. Mongolians also eat a lot of dishes made with rice, noodles, or dough of some sort. Meat is almost always well cooked, Most of the milk is pasteurized during the production process, but if you have doubts, consult with your guide. Local food tends to be greasy or fatty, and although root vegetables are common you will encounter few greens or fruits. The most commonly experienced stomach disorder is slight constipation, rather than diarrhea. If you regularly eat lots of fiber, we recommend you bring a powdered fiber drink or similar with you as a supplement.<span class="textright" style="text-align: right;"></span></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="18" name="18"></a>What advice do you have for women travelers?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Mongolians, both men and women, are a relatively modest people, and most people outside of the capital do not wear very revealing clothing, although they are now used to seeing foreigners in shorts at many of the more visited places in the countryside. However, you will want to wear pants or a skirt covering at least your knees to avoid being stared at in some rural areas, particularly in Western Mongolia, and also to enter monasteries. That said, shorts are perfectly acceptable while hiking or trekking and you should bring a bathing suit for swimming in the summer. Mongolia has a limited range of feminine hygiene products, particularly in the countryside, so it is best to bring your own. Mongolia is a very egalitarian society and women are treated with respect, courtesy, and friendliness.<br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgunsmMyA9D_GAH8IQKnPB9_ysrb6wyZaEUfumRalS1hlUdO4UVkq0wfw6IgCcFdrOlho0WZbvBD0LpW2i4znn5DD_JiL77alhoP1c5KnMhKe06axHTNjb-EXN1vPBivJ_kbtbLp4k1_hk/s1600/kempinski-hotel-khan-palace-location.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="234" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgunsmMyA9D_GAH8IQKnPB9_ysrb6wyZaEUfumRalS1hlUdO4UVkq0wfw6IgCcFdrOlho0WZbvBD0LpW2i4znn5DD_JiL77alhoP1c5KnMhKe06axHTNjb-EXN1vPBivJ_kbtbLp4k1_hk/s1600/kempinski-hotel-khan-palace-location.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="19" name="19"></a>It’s my first camping adventure… what to expect?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Many people on their first extended wilderness trip are uncertain about where they will be able to wash, use the bathroom, etc. and whether or not they will be able to handle ‘roughing it’ in the great outdoors. Rest assured, many first time campers have been on extended wilderness trips in Mongolia and found it easy to adjust to, if not outright liberating. Your guide will let you know at each stop what the arrangements are for washing up, using the toilet, etc. Please visit Mongolian Ways website at www.mongolian-ways.com and go to the section on “Tips for First Time Adventurers” under the FAQS section, which will help you to learn the ropes. </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="20" name="20"></a>Is travel in Mongolia very difficult?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Yes, travel in Mongolia is demanding, and infrastructure and services can be poor. We prefer to prepare you for the worst possible conditions and have you be pleasantly surprised than to downplay the difficulties of travel. Some of our trips offer a greater degree of comfort and better facilities than others. If you have any doubts about whether or not you will enjoy the conditions of travel, or the quality of service provided in accommodations, restaurants, and during transportation, you should consult with us to see if our trips are right for you. We cannot make a general recommendation, as we have had clients of under 10 years of age and over 80 years of age join many of our challenging trips and they have expressed their utter enjoyment of the experience, while very fit people in their 20s and 30s may find themselves frustrated by delays, annoyed by poor service in camps, airports, or restaurants, or shocked at the absence of flushing toilets. If you have patience, a sense of humor, are eager for new and unusual experiences, and are reasonably fit, then almost any of our adventures will be a great experience for you, no matter what your age. If you have already traveled to less developed parts of the world, you will know some of what to expect. Most importantly, you should contact us with any concerns prior to booking your trip, as we will assist you to make a well informed and realistic assessment of whether or not a trip is suitable for you. We would rather have a potential client decline to travel with us than have an unhappy client on a trip! </div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="21" name="21"></a>Are your trips suitable for travelers over 55?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">We find that many of our travelers over 55 are more fit and prepared for adventure travel than some of our younger travelers! If you are reasonably active and have regular exercise, it is likely you can participate on any of regular trips. Some of our trips are designed around cultural experiences and are less physically demanding, if you or a travel companion have doubts about taking a more challenging trip. Please ask us to work with you on planning a trip if you are unsure.<br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhN6hSdSYo-pU9eOwJ8byAd8rpkdx1OE9tuAXo21da6okWp1AM89ICMz9pfYakkKRiO8YK11iUDFaIiQOdHvEpDAOBVat7nzNIlV-CxujyzrDHj7Ad8a6Tpd9MtUYDExxkbexCuNH4X1UU/s1600/UlaanBaatar-2009.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="163" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhN6hSdSYo-pU9eOwJ8byAd8rpkdx1OE9tuAXo21da6okWp1AM89ICMz9pfYakkKRiO8YK11iUDFaIiQOdHvEpDAOBVat7nzNIlV-CxujyzrDHj7Ad8a6Tpd9MtUYDExxkbexCuNH4X1UU/s1600/UlaanBaatar-2009.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="22" name="22"></a>Are the trips safe?</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Adventure travel, by its very nature, always involves a degree of risk taking. Travel to remote areas involves risks and dangers including the forces of nature, poorly maintained roads, trails, hotels, and vehicles which are not operated or maintained at high standards. Tracks and trails are unmarked. Extreme weather changes may occur. You may have an accident or illness where rapid evacuation may not be possible, and where medical facilities or medications may be of poor quality or inaccessible. You may over-exert yourself or find conditions for which you are not prepared. Participating in adventure travel takes us to remote places of great beauty, unique cultures, and little discovered natural, historical, and archeological wonders. The enjoyment and excitement we seek in adventure travel takes us far from the safety and comforts of the organized, regulated, accident-proofed developed world. Mongolian Ways strives to make adventure travel as safe as is practically possible. All of our guides and staff complete Red Cross recognized First Aid training programs, and all guides and trip leaders have completed an essential guiding skills program focused on safety and client care. All of our drivers are experienced countryside drivers and have annual refresher courses in safe driving skills and accident prevention. In trips to remote areas, our guides are equipped with satellite phones and GPS units to assist us in locating your group and providing assistance or evacuation in case of an emergency. We maintain regular contacts with emergency evacuation services including helicopter and small plane charter companies and emergency medical service providers in Ulaanbaatar. Safety is the first concern we have in the planning and preparation of each and every trip, and we have contingency plans for bad weather, vehicle breakdowns, and other unexpected events. Senior office staff have many years of experience in leading expeditions to remote places, and have traveled independently throughout Mongolia in all weather conditions. At all times, our Ulaanbaatar based staff is available to resolve problems and assist in emergency situations, and will work with your guide or trip leader to ensure all efforts are made to provide timely, adequate assistance. </div>

Travel in Mongolia

GENERAL INFORMATION Trips vary greatly depending on the objective. Some trips are designed to cover a lot of ground - if you like off-road a...

Read more »

Culture and lifestyle

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJ2XFFM78nNNLXuUxqeF8_V9h5XxXPD8CiRV3_X6-4OZOp_n5-3-4j3WorVi1MRj7jlEpabPQXlSANAgMxoNb41OazBxNfyK6z-Sl7YWBx0M6Lom3PWgoYgCE9UUPvaeARozudH8BqiP8/s1600/horses-and-blue-sky.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJ2XFFM78nNNLXuUxqeF8_V9h5XxXPD8CiRV3_X6-4OZOp_n5-3-4j3WorVi1MRj7jlEpabPQXlSANAgMxoNb41OazBxNfyK6z-Sl7YWBx0M6Lom3PWgoYgCE9UUPvaeARozudH8BqiP8/s1600/horses-and-blue-sky.jpg" width="500" /></a></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">Nomadic based culture</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Like every other nomadic culture, Mongolian culture is well-known for its hospitality. Upon guests’ arrival, traditional offerings and treats are served - dairy products in the summer time, and meat in the winter.<br /><a name="more"></a></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><center><script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><!-- tod-movie_main_Blog1_300x250_as --><ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-6499851386158628" data-ad-slot="4757842990" style="display: inline-block; height: 250px; width: 300px;"></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></center><br /><div> Traditionally a Mongolian, even during his absence, will leave his ger unlocked, in order to allow any passer-by to rest and enjoy the treats which are left on the table for visitors.</div><div>Mongolians traditionally lead a pastoral, nomadic lifestyle. Because of the climate and short growing season, animal husbandry defines the nomadic lifestyle, with agriculture playing a secondary role. Nomads raise five types of animals - goats, sheep, cattle (including yaks), camels and horses - that provide meat, dairy products, transportation, and wool. Of these animals, the horse holds the highest position in Mongolian tales and legends.<br /><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7OjNXXwj58lvpJoH473x7CKlRRUtt2km5A2UyOqyuUwT4ufI5ERIDzwC_ysnkJ1WCAhBvlKZ9eiFqqDsFTvCt1vv7k6IpgN8Vdby8MJ6djb7zkxBEw2wk64vF7nBOkwnBTDzBlteVnog/s1600/gobi-desert-mongolia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="146" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7OjNXXwj58lvpJoH473x7CKlRRUtt2km5A2UyOqyuUwT4ufI5ERIDzwC_ysnkJ1WCAhBvlKZ9eiFqqDsFTvCt1vv7k6IpgN8Vdby8MJ6djb7zkxBEw2wk64vF7nBOkwnBTDzBlteVnog/s1600/gobi-desert-mongolia.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>As one of the only remaining horse-based cultures left in the world, Mongolians greatly cherish their horses. Outside the capital, the horse is still the main mode of transportation and children begin riding as soon as they can sit up. Nomads are extremely proud of their riding skills and horse racing is a favorite pastime. Believing the race to be a test of the animal's and not the rider's ability, young children are often the jockeys. The most prestigious tests of these superb animals are the horse races at the Naadam Festival, Mongolia 's national games, which takes place each July. Families will travel for days to be able to participate or just attend this grand event.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Nomadic families follow a seasonal routine, moving the herds to new grazing land based on the time of year, rather than one of aimless wandering. Historically, each clan had various chosen grazing grounds that were used exclusively by the same clan year after year. This tradition carries on today and families return to the same locations at the same time each year, for example, traveling at the end of each winter from a specific sheltered valley to a particular grazing area on the steppes.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC1enTnOlmkNnaFD4ppyXr3_pMIk9t5S_E08v32ATikfBtrdYusulyNmYD6iG74aCs-IqU10AmSE_K4Kvx6hy6OZ3KyGBtz71bX4NXUzKsjmHi5kjw1MBLn06qfp-W9-bcxaf3zqggEmo/s1600/visa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="100" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC1enTnOlmkNnaFD4ppyXr3_pMIk9t5S_E08v32ATikfBtrdYusulyNmYD6iG74aCs-IqU10AmSE_K4Kvx6hy6OZ3KyGBtz71bX4NXUzKsjmHi5kjw1MBLn06qfp-W9-bcxaf3zqggEmo/s1600/visa.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>Daily responsibilities are divided evenly among family members and no one person's work is considered more important than another's. Traditionally, men take care of the horses arid, the herds and make saddles, harnesses, and weapons. In addition, they hunt to supplement  the traditional diet of dairy products. Women also milk cows, goats and mares (the national drink is airag - fermented mare's milk). Despite their enterprise, however, Mongolians are not self-sufficient. Since ancient times, they have traded with surrounding civilizations far grain, rice, tea, silk, cotton and etc. Women's responsibilities include cooking, taking care of the children and making clothing (the traditional Mongolian costume is the ankle-length silk del).</div><div class="textright" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: right;"><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="2"></a>The Mongolian Ger</h2><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRH-B7fTEBI6S_dfL1v0JdpKnuvxl4L1k_NVKosmZQMjl-DwreJmt-5i0orCbYPTebKJ-caMUbJsBmoW3J3YPRsBqMMA9VNqUaw2VgUupQKMBnYJz65wWeemcOuMZn4AxhHJ1hE6TXYdQ/s1600/ger001.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="246" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRH-B7fTEBI6S_dfL1v0JdpKnuvxl4L1k_NVKosmZQMjl-DwreJmt-5i0orCbYPTebKJ-caMUbJsBmoW3J3YPRsBqMMA9VNqUaw2VgUupQKMBnYJz65wWeemcOuMZn4AxhHJ1hE6TXYdQ/s1600/ger001.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">With a history of over a thousand years, this portable dwelling made of wood lashed together with leather thongs and covered with felt is the home of the Mongolian nomads. Easy to erect and dismantle, the ger, its furnishings, and the stove inside can be carried by just three camels, or wagons pulled by yaks.</span><br /><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The average ger is small but spacious enough to provide adequate living space for a family, is wind resistant, and has good ventilation. Gers are constructed of a latticed wood structure covered with layers of felt and canvas. A lattice frame of narrow birch and willow laths is held together by leather strips. The sections are about 2 meters long and are bound together to form a large circular structure. This collapsible lattice is called khana. The average ger uses four to eight khana, with six being the most popular size. The door-frame is a separate unit, as is<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGnTKILPMby6ODFbbTTMhJOtF7uX8rpnJxyY7rDOjF3rE5jcwMahL2xf9PnK-fx13__ZINZmo4sf0CZReHKj7KaBFdy9t6_xmnwSWxVJ88TOgbjS5yKcF-pralr5WHxh5glfol9uj86nA/s1600/01-portisch-yurt_interior_wide_lense.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGnTKILPMby6ODFbbTTMhJOtF7uX8rpnJxyY7rDOjF3rE5jcwMahL2xf9PnK-fx13__ZINZmo4sf0CZReHKj7KaBFdy9t6_xmnwSWxVJ88TOgbjS5yKcF-pralr5WHxh5glfol9uj86nA/s1600/01-portisch-yurt_interior_wide_lense.jpg" width="200" /></a> the ceiling formed from an umbrella-like frame-work of slender poles called uni, which are lashed to the khana on one end and slotted into the tonoo, a circular frame, at the top. Traditionally, the door was a felt flap attached to the door-frame, but most nomads now use a carved or painted wooden door. In the center of the tonoo is a small hole which allows smoke to escape and fresh air and light to enter. Each ger is heated by a small metal stove fueled with dried dung or wood.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirJvlv_ORIyJhq7B2_artqUPLoLepImhjCDLKckPXK4Obn4yvd9USsUKpdE4mRjQrQarpcLuPJSIw6T8y8AsP7EGhlRGopvjwXgTjHsPD6_D4aHHS4XLO0Bh1l395kerhGWkI8d2Oyl54/s1600/mongolian-ger_m1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="141" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirJvlv_ORIyJhq7B2_artqUPLoLepImhjCDLKckPXK4Obn4yvd9USsUKpdE4mRjQrQarpcLuPJSIw6T8y8AsP7EGhlRGopvjwXgTjHsPD6_D4aHHS4XLO0Bh1l395kerhGWkI8d2Oyl54/s1600/mongolian-ger_m1.jpg" width="320" /></a>The entrance of the ger always faces south. Once the wooden framework is lashed together, it is covered with layers of felt and canvas. The felt helps the ger retain heat and the canvas over it sheds rain. Ropes made of hair and wool hold the thick layer of felt in place. During the summer, one layer of felt is used, but during the winter, two or three layers are necessary. Travelers to Mongolia will have the opportunity to sleep in traditional gers while staying with nomadic families or at ger camps. The Mongolian ger has customs attached to it that are unique; please refer to the guide following this section to learn more about the Do’s and Don’ts inside a ger.</div><div class="textright" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: right;"><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="3"></a>Mongolian Music</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Two of the most significant Mongolian art forms are Khoomi singing (throat singing) and the playing of the Morin Huur or Horse Head fiddle.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh28b034413PcM1MdDd74PVsirBMEMdIAujmF6pqJeQnH1ygN-sA_xaZiPJqeOzWLc2p3BdgX4rcyEwRGGLNDzOd8r5rQublMjrgoeyZwtoTErQy6bv3Dou9alSVAy18muYriQnldCv0OU/s1600/006.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="125" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh28b034413PcM1MdDd74PVsirBMEMdIAujmF6pqJeQnH1ygN-sA_xaZiPJqeOzWLc2p3BdgX4rcyEwRGGLNDzOd8r5rQublMjrgoeyZwtoTErQy6bv3Dou9alSVAy18muYriQnldCv0OU/s1600/006.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><strong>Khoomi Singing- </strong>The physics of Khoomi singing are still not completely understood, but it’s basic principles are known. Most natural sounds are composed of a base pitch (fundamental) plus many more tones at higher pitches (harmonics). Usually our ears zero in on the fundamental and that is the pitch that our mind assigns to the sound. The fewer the harmonics the “purer” the sound (e.g., a flute does not produce many harmonic tones), whereas the presence of more harmonics makes the sound “richer”. The human voice is rich with harmonics (edited by <a href="http://www.testsforge.com/expert/jeffrey_driedger.html" style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">jeffrey driedger</a>). By dividing the mouth into two cavities and modulating the resonant pitches of each, the Khoomi singer is able to suppress the fundamental or base pitch and amplify one or two harmonics so that our ears register them as separate tones rather than as one complex tone. It is almost as difficult to describe in writing what khoomi sounds like as it would be to learn khoomi singing from a set of instructions! The end result is that you are hearing one person sing in what seems to be two or three different tones or notes at the same time. It is eerie, and beautiful. As the singer’s rich bass voice sings the words, there will be a whistling overtone and sometimes a humming mid tone.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIYcf1X2xgLnu3SDc_SwffZvDOmOEUj-KhyBVe8SQS2hKfghxlZE_9OIu1R7m7kNfKsvAy0cJ2zTHWvjg6r_FgbHJ6cpSpdmztSOc5_pB9npmFJIV21QzfxInl7eF4r3es1p5UH9wfjbQ/s1600/6817241847_905bca9337_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIYcf1X2xgLnu3SDc_SwffZvDOmOEUj-KhyBVe8SQS2hKfghxlZE_9OIu1R7m7kNfKsvAy0cJ2zTHWvjg6r_FgbHJ6cpSpdmztSOc5_pB9npmFJIV21QzfxInl7eF4r3es1p5UH9wfjbQ/s1600/6817241847_905bca9337_z.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><strong>Morin Huur-</strong> Used in Khoomi singing and in other forms of traditional music, the origins of the Morin Huur lie with the Chinese two-stringed fiddle. With its typical horse-head carving crowning the instrument, the Morin Huur plays a major part in all classic Mongolian forms of music. To this day people of all ages play it.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwZcIzsLPyJnEu0iO2jkRxq-wCp6x2TuM4D7aU7ymkio1KTkmXGCFE7MtctXXY4q_IepO_8Ag_u-Zac6nsSLS43edGam7WK1_oh6bAcV9lh7-gF6lMF_yS2v238sPpmq-eTnuCjhy6kfI/s1600/Long-song-singers.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwZcIzsLPyJnEu0iO2jkRxq-wCp6x2TuM4D7aU7ymkio1KTkmXGCFE7MtctXXY4q_IepO_8Ag_u-Zac6nsSLS43edGam7WK1_oh6bAcV9lh7-gF6lMF_yS2v238sPpmq-eTnuCjhy6kfI/s1600/Long-song-singers.gif" width="200" /></a></div><strong>Long Song-</strong> The Mongolian long song is a truly nomadic art form. It can be sung without any accompanying instruments and is very melodic, and the voices of good long song singers can carry over immense distances. Common themes include nature, family, animals, and epic tales.</div><div class="textright" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: right;"><br /></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"></h2><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"></h2><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"></h2><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"></h2><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: center;">Festivals and Holidays</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0x8g7FZNjdifyKNOKOWbpSwOBPCAaDgWnKp6oZ2ljd27XSHdD-6eAJd2jk_Uf_zGjj_FhTUGxtmdCSnIKTp-ceNl2i-xhtokHPDasziJhWzJicNX8NVDg9W0ypp4j1CIUPI2G3278r7I/s1600/6mndpus7eeakunmp44lgcvlu10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0x8g7FZNjdifyKNOKOWbpSwOBPCAaDgWnKp6oZ2ljd27XSHdD-6eAJd2jk_Uf_zGjj_FhTUGxtmdCSnIKTp-ceNl2i-xhtokHPDasziJhWzJicNX8NVDg9W0ypp4j1CIUPI2G3278r7I/s1600/6mndpus7eeakunmp44lgcvlu10.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><strong>Naadam Festival-</strong><br /><br />probably the most well-known Mongolian Festival. Originating from the beginning of the previous century, the festival consists of the “three manly sports”- wrestling, horse riding and archery, accompanies by festivities, eating and drinking, and much socializing. The event is celebrated all over Mongolia, with the main events taking place in the capital.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong><br /></strong><strong><br /></strong><strong><br /></strong><strong><br /></strong><strong><br /></strong><strong><br /></strong><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZxTmgvT-22I9rXIdHN-l-X8ER15k7dvsYJLKAGuQxqsUBhvKB1tXtLXeBX4uXdg_5OLL6Ep-ta5547hXnXacUT9-jHhXYBfuTSQ9oVF_YPPC5VPWAa80MhViklBVGBT0rWsxGngWFJC0/s1600/Chagaan_sar_4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZxTmgvT-22I9rXIdHN-l-X8ER15k7dvsYJLKAGuQxqsUBhvKB1tXtLXeBX4uXdg_5OLL6Ep-ta5547hXnXacUT9-jHhXYBfuTSQ9oVF_YPPC5VPWAa80MhViklBVGBT0rWsxGngWFJC0/s1600/Chagaan_sar_4.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><strong>Tsagaan Sar-</strong> the “white moon” celebrations are celebrated at the Lunar New Year. It is a tradition to climb a sacred mountain on the first day of the New Year, to welcome the first morning of the New Year on the mountain peak. On the three following days, Mongolians visit their relatives and friends, and enjoy traditional food and drink.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Like any other ex-communist country, Mongolia adopted many communist style holidays, such as military day, revolution day, women’s day, labour day and so on. Today some of them remain non-working days, but have lost their original meaning.</div><div class="textright" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: right;"><a href="http://www.mongolian-ways.com/culture.htm" style="color: #4d671f;">› top</a></div><h2 style="font-family: Trebuchet, 'Trebuchet MS', Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="5"></a>Religions</h2><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEij7C4RgTFKnWzzW2iBpiOGJrX5Fjx-nJqyEYf3UFEfopyvaRcwQDXJeg83IyJlyJOK3_cw-QrBtqQPviRBRMblyUgKSlSsGEVRGShEec0ebt3rnmc8OMC3CK1wMTVQUkW5smzVRLITmqU/s1600/MongoliaShaman2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEij7C4RgTFKnWzzW2iBpiOGJrX5Fjx-nJqyEYf3UFEfopyvaRcwQDXJeg83IyJlyJOK3_cw-QrBtqQPviRBRMblyUgKSlSsGEVRGShEec0ebt3rnmc8OMC3CK1wMTVQUkW5smzVRLITmqU/s1600/MongoliaShaman2.jpg" width="227" /></a><strong>Shamanism</strong> - Anthropologists have identified shamanistic practices in tribal cultures, ancient and modern, throughout the world. Shamanism is a "technique of ecstasy" (Mircea Eliade) in which the spirit of the shaman leaves the body and travels to communicate with spirit helpers and other beings for the purpose of obtaining knowledge, power, or healing. However, the shaman usually retains control over his or her body. In many cultures, a shaman is chosen or called, sometimes by healing him- or herself of a serious illness. Shamanic healing is a process whereby a person journeys on behalf of another, and brings back information or instructions that can be used to provide psychological, physical, emotional, or spiritual healing to another person. The word 'Shaman' is actually a Tungus (Siberian) word for this spiritual practice that is as old as mankind, and is still practiced by indigenous people. Shamanism is not rooted in any organized religious tradition, but is instead a system of controlled visionary journeys into alternate realities (and back) in order to contact spirit guides and gain their assistance in divination and healing. Shamanism goes back in Mongolian history long before Chinggis Khan’s time, but it was Chinggis Khan that made it into such a fundamental part of the Mongolian tradition. The Mongolians were worshiping “Hoh Tenger” (blue skies) in this time. According to this belief the skies are the father, and the earth is the mother of all beings in the universe. As a civilization totally dependent on the forces of nature, the Mongolians worshipped the various elements of nature, praying to their ancestors who have transformed into mythical spiritual animals to provide them with good weather, health and success. Though oppressed during communist time, Shamanism is still widely practiced in Mongolia, and people who seek help will approach a Shaman for a blessing or cure and even to get hints about their future.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9ZwjBENJonXkxFWeZ2nDTE-vxfaG-5QzoWOiXmgxDGFCxaIHL4tCS3c_AVmcG-F4bDVBKqwjnoL0TRmkwkHVoCAFKuwjWXbDIdpMy_9MhyphenhyphenIyHzOADyryqsihJurKpAy-45tZcFPC5Dak/s1600/060825081755EH.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9ZwjBENJonXkxFWeZ2nDTE-vxfaG-5QzoWOiXmgxDGFCxaIHL4tCS3c_AVmcG-F4bDVBKqwjnoL0TRmkwkHVoCAFKuwjWXbDIdpMy_9MhyphenhyphenIyHzOADyryqsihJurKpAy-45tZcFPC5Dak/s1600/060825081755EH.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><strong>Buddhism-</strong> Mongolians have been Buddhists since the 16th century, when the Mongolian king, Altan Khan, was converted by Tibetan lamas. Mongolians follow Tibetan Buddhist teachings, (also called Lamaism), the body of religious Buddhist doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and the Himalayan region. It is a school within Tantric Buddhism (also called Vajrayana Buddhism), which in turn is part of the great Mahayana school. In the pre-revolutionary period, Mongolia was ruled by a series of Living Buddhas, or Jebtzun Damba. The eighth, and last, Jebtzun Damba was removed after the communist takeover. Traditionally, monasteries were centers both of learning and of power. It's estimated Mongolia had 100,000 monks, or lamas, in 1921 -- one third of the male population. In the 1930s, this power became the focus of a ruthless series of purges that reached a climax in 1937. Most of the country's monasteries were destroyed, and as many as 17,000 monks were killed.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Today, Mongolia is once again embracing its Buddhist heritage. Monasteries are being restored, and are once again crowded with worshippers. The Dalai Lama is an enormously popular figure and has visited the country several times. For many Mongolians, the practice of Buddhism is flavored with traces of Shamanism, an even more ancient spirituality.</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><strong>Other Religions</strong>- Mongolia also has a small Muslim community -- about 6 per cent of the population. These are mostly ethnic Kazakhs living in the far west of the country. The opening-up of the country has led to an influx of Christian missionaries, and this remains a source of some tension and debate among Mongolians.</div>

Culture and lifestyle

Nomadic based culture Like every other nomadic culture, Mongolian culture is well-known for its hospitality. Upon guests’ arrival, tradition...

Read more »